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Gracchi Brothers

Багерман А.Я.

The Gracchi Brothers are the commonly accepted designation for two well-known Roman politicians and reformers of the 2nd century BCE:

Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (Latin: Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus) – the elder of the brothers, an ancient Roman political figure, and a people's tribune. Gaius Sempronius Gracchus (Latin: Gaius Sempronius Gracchus) – the younger brother, also an ancient Roman political figure, and a people's tribune. The Gracchi were from the notable plebeian Sempronius family, which belonged to the nobilitas—the political elite of the Roman Republic. Members of the patrician branch of the Sempronii family are known from the 5th century BCE, while the plebeian branch, to which the Gracchi belonged, is known from the 3rd century BCE. The cognomen “Gracchus” likely derived either from the word “graculus” (“jackdaw”) or has Etruscan origins. Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus were the sons of Tiberius Gracchus and Cornelia. Tiberius Gracchus the Elder was twice consul (in 177 BCE and 163 BCE) and censor (who conducted the census in 169 BCE). He was twice a people's tribune and defended Scipio Africanus, despite personal enmity with him. The Gracchi brothers' mother was Cornelia, the daughter of Scipio Africanus. She ensured that her sons received an excellent education.

Sculpture by Eugène Guillaume. "The Gracchi Brothers." Musée d'Orsay, Paris, France. Circa 1850 CE.

Plutarch, in his Parallel Lives, tells us about the brothers' upbringing by their mother: “...Cornelia assumed all the responsibilities of the household, demonstrating such nobility, good sense, and love for her children that it seemed Tiberius made an excellent choice in deciding to die for a wife who rejected the marriage proposal of Ptolemy, who wished to share a royal crown with her, but remained a widow. She lost all her children except three: her daughter was married to Scipio Minor, and her two sons, Tiberius and Gaius, whose lives we describe here, she raised with such ambitious care that they were undoubtedly the most gifted among the Romans, owing their excellent qualities more to their upbringing than to nature.”

Plutarch also provides a description of the similarities and differences between the brothers: “...Tiberius had a softer, more restrained expression, look, and gestures, while Gaius was sharper and more passionate, so that when delivering speeches, Tiberius stood modestly in place, while Gaius was the first among Romans to walk around the rostrum and remove his toga from his shoulder during his speech—just as the Athenian Cleon, according to writers, was the first to tear off his cloak and slap his thigh while speaking to the people. Gaius spoke fiercely, passionately, and fervently, while Tiberius's speech was pleasant to the ear and easily evoked compassion. Finally, Tiberius's style was pure and carefully crafted, while Gaius's was captivating and grand. They also differed in their lifestyles overall: Tiberius lived simply and modestly, while Gaius seemed austere and restrained compared to others but was considered frivolous and extravagant compared to his brother. Drusus criticized him for this when he bought silver dolphins, paying twelve hundred drachmas for each pound. Their differences in speech were matched by differences in temperament: one was lenient and gentle, while the other was prickly and quick-tempered, often losing control during speeches, giving in completely to anger, shouting, and using abusive language, to the point where he would eventually falter and fall silent. To overcome this flaw, he enlisted the help of a clever slave named Licinius. Taking a musical instrument used by singing teachers, Licinius would stand behind Gaius whenever he spoke and, noticing that he had raised his voice and was about to lose his temper, he would strike a soft and gentle note. Responding to this, Gaius would immediately reduce his intensity, regain control of his emotions and voice, and calm down. These were the differences between the brothers; as for their courage in the face of enemies, justice towards subordinates, zeal for service, and moderation in pleasures… [the text is corrupted in the original.] ...they were entirely in agreement. Tiberius was nine years older, so they pursued their political careers separately, which greatly harmed their cause, as they reached their peaks at different times and could not combine their forces.”

The elder brother began his political career earlier. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, before becoming a people's tribune, had participated in the Third Punic War (149-146 BCE). Upon returning from the war, he observed that:

Why were Roman peasants being impoverished? Long military campaigns took able-bodied men into the army, leaving their remaining family members to struggle to work the land and tend to livestock alone. They found it costly and difficult to do so; there was no market for the goods produced by the peasants, as their wealthy patrician neighbors flooded the market with goods produced by numerous slaves, whose numbers continued to grow. After being elected as a people's tribune in 134 BCE, Tiberius decided to change the situation. An excerpt from Tiberius Gracchus's speech during his election as tribune: “Even wild animals have their dens and lairs, but those who fought and died for Rome have nothing except air and light...” (Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus, 9, trans. S.P. Markish). After being elected as a tribune, Tiberius Gracchus almost immediately proposed his agrarian reform project.

The main points of his agrarian law were:

This project was not well received by everyone. In the Senate, Tiberius had some supporters, but they were in the minority, while his opponents formed the majority. The proposal garnered mass support from numerous smallholders and landless peasants. Tiberius violated the long-standing custom that required a bill to be approved by the Senate before being presented to the people’s assembly (comitia). He immediately introduced the bill to the comitia, but another people's tribune, Marcus Octavius, attempted to block Tiberius’s bill by vetoing it.

Artist Joseph-Benoît Suvée. "Cornelia, Mother of the Gracchi". Louvre, France. 1795.

Veto – a right that allows blocking the adoption of certain decisions. This right appeared among the people's tribunes since the time of the struggle between the patricians and plebeians to protect the interests of the plebeians.

Tiberius tried to persuade Octavius to lift the veto, but he refused. Turning to the Senate and not finding support there either, Tiberius, with the help of the people's assembly, removed Octavius from the position of tribune, thereby lifting his veto. Soon, the comitia passed Tiberius' agrarian law and elected three members of the agrarian commission, who were to implement the project's ideas. The commission included Tiberius himself, his younger brother Gaius (who was not in Rome at the time, as he was participating in the Numantine War in Spain from 141-133 BC), and Tiberius' father-in-law, Appius Claudius Pulcher. Senators, not reconciled with the adopted law, began to sabotage it in every possible way and hinder the commission's work. Tiberius was aided by the will of the deceased King Attalus III of Pergamum, who left his kingdom and riches to Rome. Tiberius bypassed the Senate and independently disposed of Attalus' inheritance, spending the money on the work of the agrarian commission, thereby violating the law. Tiberius also violated the terms of Attalus' will, which guaranteed the independence of the cities of the Pergamene Kingdom, and handed them over to the Roman people's assembly. Nobles, offended by the commission's activities and Tiberius' handling of Attalus' will, began to oppose him. Eventually, Tiberius Gracchus was accused of preparing to restore royal power, the most serious political crime for Romans. Tiberius believed that he had achieved insufficient progress in his year of activity and decided to be re-elected as a tribune for the next year, 133 BC, intending to extend his judicial immunity. Otherwise, his opponents could have put him on trial for unlawful activities. Tiberius' opponents managed to postpone the elections to the summer of 133 BC when most of the farmers, whom Tiberius relied on, could not support him in the elections because they were busy harvesting their crops.

During the elections, a brawl broke out between Tiberius Gracchus' opponents and supporters. Due to the noise, he could not call for his supporters and put his hand to his head – this gesture signified a threat to the life of a tribune or a Roman citizen. Tiberius' opponents interpreted this gesture as a demand for a royal diadem and reported it to the Senate. This caused outrage, and senators, along with their clients, rushed to the Capitol and started a massacre, during which Tiberius and many of his supporters were killed. The bodies of Tiberius Gracchus and his adherents were thrown into the Tiber River. Thus perished the elder of the Gracchi brothers. Despite Tiberius' death, the agrarian law and the agrarian commission continued their work until 129 BC, when the commission's activities were ceased. Publius Licinius Crassus Mucianus, Gaius Gracchus' father-in-law, was elected to replace the deceased Tiberius Gracchus. Many of Tiberius' supporters faced persecution, trials, and exile.

Ten years later, Tiberius' younger brother, Gaius Gracchus, decided to continue his brother's cause. During his elder brother's tribunate (133 BC), Gaius supported his ideas and even joined the agrarian commission, although he was in Spain at the time, participating in the Numantine War. After his brother's murder, Gaius returned to Rome, where he worked on the agrarian commission until 129 BC when its work was blocked by opponents of the reforms. After this, he served as quaestor and proquaestor on the island of Sardinia (126-125 BC). Then he returned to Rome, where in 123 BC he was elected people's tribune and continued the work started by his brother Tiberius. Unlike his brother, Gaius prepared for his election and devised a plan of action. He served as a people's tribune for two terms (123, 122 BC) and managed to carry out several reforms during this time. Gaius' life goal was to avenge his brother's killers and continue his cause. Researchers have not reached a consensus on which laws Gaius passed in each of his two terms due to discrepancies in the sources (Plutarch, Appian, Tacitus).

Gaius Gracchus' reforms (laws of Gaius Gracchus, according to Czech researcher Milan Bartoshek), Lex (Latin) means law:

1. lex agraria (agrarian law – renewal of Tiberius' law)

2. lex de abactis (law prohibiting officials removed by the people's will from seeking other positions)

3. lex de capite civis Romani (law guaranteeing the safety of citizens)

4. lex de coloniis Tarentum et Capuam deducendis (law on establishing colonies in Italy and beyond, as there was no longer enough state land for everyone)

5. lex de provincia Asia (law on auctioning all taxes from the wealthy province of Asia to wealthy individuals in Rome, not in the province)

6. lex frumentaria (grain law, setting a maximum price for grain sold from state warehouses to the poorest citizens – 6 1/3 asses per modius (8.7 liters))

7. lex militaris (law improving the conditions for soldiers – they were to be enlisted no earlier than 17 years old and provided with clothing at the state's expense, not from their wages)

8. lex iudiciaria (judicial law – transferring courts from senators to equestrians)

9. lex de provinciis consularibus (law on the procedure for allocating provinces for consuls: before the Gracchi, the Senate decided which provinces consuls would govern after they were elected, creating intrigues over the administration of provinces. Starting with the Gracchi, the decision on provinces was made before the election of high officials – consuls. People's tribunes had no right to veto such decisions)

10. lex de sociis et nomine (law on citizenship either only for Latins or for the entire population of Italy, it is unknown who exactly this law was intended for). This law was not passed.

These laws initially ensured Gaius a majority of votes in the people's assembly and support from rural residents, plebeians, and equestrians. But gradually, Gaius' enemies managed to turn the equestrians, who did not want further conflict with the Senate, and the wealthy part of the plebeians, dissatisfied with the grain law and the establishment of colonies, against him. Gaius was opposed by his colleague in the second tribunate (122 BC) Marcus Livius Drusus, who proposed even more radical ideas, which the people ultimately accepted. Gaius' popularity began to wane. Additionally, his enemies turned many plebeians against Gaius' idea of establishing a colony on the site of the destroyed and cursed Carthage in Africa. After losing the next election for tribune and becoming a private citizen in January 121 BC, his enemies began preparing to destroy him and his supporters. The pretext was the destruction of the African colony of Junonia, located on the former site of Carthage. Soon, riots and clashes broke out in Rome between Gaius Gracchus' supporters and opponents. Gaius took refuge on the Aventine Hill. There, the Senate ordered troops, along with Gaius' opponents, to enter. A battle ensued, during which the Gracchans were defeated, and Gaius, fleeing the battlefield, ordered his slave to kill him. Thus perished the second of the Gracchi brothers. Gaius' body and those of his supporters, like Tiberius', were thrown into the Tiber, and their property was confiscated.

Outcomes of the reforms and activities of the Gracchi brothers:

Related topics:

Roman Republic, Senator

Literature

Bugaeva N. The conspiracy of Catilina in the" Breviary from the foundation of the city " of Eutropia. Classical Philology and Ancient history. - 2010. - p. 78-101.

Roman Forum and agrarian Reform of Tiberius Gracchus / / Iz istorii antichnogo obshchestva. - 1986. - p. 65-77. Historiography of Ancient History, Moscow: Vysshaya shkola Publ., 1980.

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