Reign of the Flavian Dynasty

The Flavians were the imperial dynasty of Vespasian (69–79) and his sons Titus (79–81) and Domitian (81–96). Vespasian won the civil war of 69, concluding the Year of the Four Emperors. The dynasty restored finances and supported extensive construction after warfare.

The Colosseum was begun under Vespasian and opened by Titus in 80. Titus’s reign included Vesuvius’s eruption in 79 and the fire of Rome in 80. Domitian fought along the Rhine and Danube and developed strained relations with parts of the senatorial elite. His assassination in 96 ended the dynasty.

Titus' reign was plagued by many natural disasters, the most serious of which was the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. The surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were completely buried under ash and ash and volcanic deposits. A year later, Rome was struck by fire and plague. On the military front, the Flavian dynasty witnessed the siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus in 70 after the failed Jewish revolt of 66. Substantial conquests were made in Britain under the command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola between 77 and 83, while Domitian was unable to secure a decisive victory over King Decebalus in the war against the Dacians. In addition, the Empire strengthened its border defenses by expanding fortifications along the Lyme Germanicus. The Flavians also initiated economic and cultural reforms. Under Vespasian, new taxes were developed to restore the Empire's finances, and Domitian revalued Roman coinage, increasing the silver content. Titus put in place a massive construction program to celebrate the rise of the Flavian dynasty, leaving behind many enduring landmarks in Rome, the most impressive of which was the Flavian Amphitheater, better known as the Colosseum.

Family tree

The Flavian family rose from an Italian municipal background. Vespasian’s grandfather Titus Flavius Petro participated in the civil wars, and his father Titus Flavius Sabinus worked in finance. Vespasian pursued a senatorial and military career and held a consulship in 51.

His marriage to Flavia Domitilla produced Titus, Domitian and a daughter Domitilla. His wife and daughter died before his imperial accession. The freedwoman Antonia Caenis later lived with him; Suetonius describes her position as effectively that of a wife, without this being an ordinary legal marriage between a senator and a freedwoman.

Titus served in the army, practised advocacy and participated in the Judaean War. His family connections included marriages to Arrecina Tertulla and Marcia Furnilla. His daughter Julia Flavia became part of the dynasty’s public representation. Kinship aided succession, while army support and influential allies also sustained the new dynasty.

Vespasian

Little factual information has been preserved about Vespasian's government during the ten years of his reign as emperor. Vespasian spent his first year as ruler in Egypt, during which time the administration of the empire was handed over to Mucianus, who was assisted by Vespasian's son Domitian. Modern historians believe that Vespasian stayed here to enlist the support of the Egyptians. In the 70 CE, Vespasian first came to Rome and immediately launched a large-scale propaganda campaign to consolidate his power and promote a new dynasty. His reign is best known for financial reforms following the decline of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, such as the introduction of a tax on urinals and numerous military campaigns in the 70s. The most significant of these was the First Jewish-Roman War, which ended with Titus' destruction of the city of Jerusalem. In addition, Vespasian faced several rebellions in Egypt, Gaul, and Germany, and reportedly survived several plots against him. Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after the Civil War, adding the Temple of Peace and starting the construction of the Flavian amphitheater, better known as the Colosseum. Vespasian died of natural causes on 23 June 79, and was immediately succeeded by his eldest son Titus. Ancient historians who lived during this period, such as Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus, and Pliny the Elder, speak well of Vespasian, denouncing the emperors who preceded him.

Titus

Despite initial misgivings about his character, Titus ruled with great success after Vespasian's death on 23 June 79, and was considered a good emperor by Suetonius and other ancient historians. In this role, he is best known for his public building program in Rome and the completion of the Colosseum in 80, as well as for his generosity in alleviating the suffering caused by two disasters, the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 and a fire in Rome in 80. Titus continued his father's efforts to promote the Flavian dynasty. He revived the practice of the imperial cult, deified his father, and laid the foundation for what would later become the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, which Domitian completed. After barely two years in office, Titus died unexpectedly of a fever on September 13,81 and was deified in the Roman Senate.

Domitian

Domitian was declared Emperor by the Praetorian Guard the day after Titus' death, beginning a reign that lasted more than fifteen years - longer than any man who had ruled Rome since Tiberius. Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluating Roman coinage, expanded the Empire's borders, and initiated a massive construction program to rebuild the ruined city of Rome. In Britain, Gnaeus Julius Agricola expanded the Roman Empire to present-day Scotland, but in Dacia, Domitian failed to achieve a decisive victory in the war against the Dacians. September 18,96 Domitian was killed by court officials, and with him came the end of the Flavian dynasty. On the same day, he was replaced by his friend and adviser Nerva, who founded the long-standing Nervan-Antonian dynasty. Domitian's memory was consigned to oblivion by the Roman Senate, with whom he had a notoriously difficult relationship throughout his reign. Senatorial authors such as Tacitus, Pliny the Younger, and Suetonius published stories after his death promoting Domitian's view as a cruel and paranoid tyrant. Modern history has rejected these views, instead describing Domitian as a ruthless but effective autocrat whose cultural, economic, and political agenda formed the basis of the peace principate of the 2nd century. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less strict, but in reality their policies differed little from those of Domitian.

Internal policy

The Principate retained republican institutions under decisive imperial predominance. The civil war of 69 demonstrated provincial armies’ importance in succession. Vespasian consolidated power through military support, revisions of the senatorial and equestrian orders, financial recovery and dynastic policy.

Titus shared important powers with his father, held consulships and commanded the praetorians. High office was not monopolised by relatives: Mucianus and other allies played substantial administrative roles. A person’s disappearance from surviving accounts does not itself prove political disgrace.

Domitian intensified court ceremonial and intervened personally in government. Trials and executions strained relations with the senatorial elite, but he did not abolish the Senate through one decision or turn the Principate into the fully developed late Roman Dominate. Senatorial and equestrian appointments remained important. The negative assessments of Tacitus, Pliny and Suetonius require attention to genre and political position.

One of Vespasian's first acts as Emperor was to implement tax reform to restore the Empire's depleted treasury. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in the 70 CE, Mucianus continued to insist that Vespasian collect as many taxes as possible, updating old ones and introducing new ones. Mucianus and Vespasian increased the tribute from the provinces and kept a close eye on the treasury officials. The Latin proverb "Pecunia non olet" ("Money doesn't smell") may have originated when he introduced a tax on urine for public toilets.

Domitian altered the silver content of the denarius, with an initial increase followed by reduction in the mid-80s. Currency and taxation supported armies and building projects. Imperial portraits normally appeared on the obverse, while reverse designs expressed victories, virtues and political programmes.

Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1,200 million sesterces, of which more than one-third would probably have been spent on maintaining the Roman army. Another major expense is related to the extensive reconstruction program of Rome itself.

Since the reign of Tiberius, the rulers of the Julio-Claudian dynasty legitimized their power through descendants on the adopted line from Augustus and Julius Caesar. However, Vespasian could no longer claim such a connection. Therefore, a massive propaganda campaign was launched to justify the Flavian rule as predestined by divine providence. At the same time, Flavian propaganda emphasized Vespasian's role as a peacemaker after the 69 crisis. Almost a third of all coins minted in Rome under Vespasian celebrated a military victory or peace, while the word vindex was removed from the coins so as not to remind the public of the rebellious Vindex. Construction sites bore inscriptions praising Vespasian and denouncing previous emperors, and a Temple of Peace was built in the forum.

The Flavians also controlled public opinion through literature. Vespasian favored stories written during his reign, ensuring that prejudice against him was removed, as well as giving financial rewards to contemporary writers. Ancient historians who lived during this period, such as Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus, and Pliny the Elder, speak suspiciously well of Vespasian, denouncing the emperors who preceded him. Tacitus acknowledges that his status was elevated by Vespasian, Josephus identifies Vespasian as a patron and savior, and Pliny dedicated his Natural Histories to Vespasian's son, Titus. Those who opposed Vespasian were punished. A number of Stoic philosophers were accused of corrupting students with inappropriate teachings and expelled from Rome. Helvidius Priscus, a philosopher who advocated a republic, was executed for his teachings.

Titus and Domitian also revived the practice of imperial worship, which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian. It is noteworthy that Domitian's first act as emperor was to deify his brother Titus. After their deaths, his infant son and niece Giulia Flavia were also listed as gods. To promote the worship of the imperial family, Domitian built a dynastic mausoleum on the site of Vespasian's former home on the Quirinal and completed the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, a sanctuary dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother. To commemorate the military triumphs of the Flavian family, he ordered the construction of the Templum Divorum and Templum Fortuna Redux, and completed the Arch of Titus. To further justify the divine nature of Flavian rule, Domitian also emphasized connections with the main deity Jupiter, most notably through the impressive restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on Capitoline Hill.

Military campaigns

The most significant military campaign undertaken during the Flavian period was the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD. Titus. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in Judea after the Jewish revolt of 66. The second Temple was completely destroyed, after which Titus' soldiers hailed him imperator in a military acclamation, not as a separate reigning emperor. Jerusalem was sacked, and most of the population was killed or dispersed. Josephus gives an unverified ancient estimate of 1,100,000 deaths during the siege, most of them Jews. 97,000 were taken captive and enslaved, including Simon Bar Giora and John of Giskale. Many fled to areas of the Mediterranean Sea. Titus is reported to have refused to accept the victory wreath because "there is no merit in defeating people abandoned by their own God." On his return to Rome in 71. Titus was triumphant. Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian, he rode into the city, enthusiastically greeting the Roman population, and was preceded by a lavish parade of treasures and prisoners from the war. Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate reenactments of the war, Jewish captives, and finally treasures taken from the Jerusalem Temple, including the Menorah and Torah. The leaders of the resistance were executed in the Forum, after which the procession ended with religious sacrifices in the Temple of Jupiter. The triumphal arch of Titus, which stands at one entrance to the forum, commemorates Titus' victory. The conquest of Britain continued under the command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who expanded the Roman Empire to Caledonia, or modern-day Scotland, between 77 and 84. In 82 AD, Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples hitherto unknown to the Romans. He fortified the coast facing Ireland, and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed that the island could be conquered by a single legion and a few auxiliaries. He gave refuge to the exiled Irish king, whom he hoped he could use as a pretext for conquest. This conquest never took place, but some historians believe that the passage in question was actually a small exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland. The following year, Agricola assembled a fleet and marched behind the Forth to Caledonia. To aid the offensive, an extensive legionary fortress was built at Inchtuthil. In the summer of 84, Agricola encountered the Caledonian armies led by Calgacus at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the Caledonians, two-thirds of their army managed to escape and hide in the Scottish marshes and highlands, which ultimately prevented Agricola from taking control of the entire British island.

Military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were usually defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of an expansionist war. His most significant military contribution was the development of the Germanic limes, which encompassed an extensive network of roads, forts, and watchtowers built along the River Rhine to protect the Empire. However, several important wars were fought in Gaul, against the Chatti, and across the Danube border against the Suebi, Sarmatians, and Dacians. Led by King Decebalus, the Dacians invaded the province of Moesia around AD 84 or 85, causing considerable damage and killing the Moesian governor Oppius Sabinus. Domitian immediately launched a counter-offensive, which resulted in the destruction of the legion during the ill-fated expedition to Dacia. Their commander, Cornelius Fuscus, was killed, and the Praetorian Guard's battle banner was lost. In 88, the Romans again invaded Dacia, this time under the command of Tettius Julianus, and finally managed to defeat Decebalus in late 88, on the same spot where Fuscus had been killed earlier. However, the attack on the Dacian capital was stopped when a crisis broke out on the German border, forcing Domitian to sign a peace treaty with Decebalus, which was sharply criticized by ancient authors. Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom until the end of Domitian's reign, but Decebalus used Roman money to strengthen his defenses and continued to resist Rome. It was only during the reign of Trajan in 106 that a decisive victory over Decebalus was secured. Again the Roman army suffered heavy losses, but Trajan managed to capture Sarmisegetusa and, importantly, annex the gold and silver mines of Dacia.

Results

The Flavians restored stable government after the civil war of 69. Military expenditure, taxation and monumental construction consolidated dynastic authority but affected population groups differently.

Roman literary portrayals of Titus are mainly favourable; Jewish tradition associates him chiefly with the destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple. Suetonius and Cassius Dio wrote later, rather than both being immediate contemporaries of every event they describe. Divergent traditions cannot be resolved simply by choosing one “correct” portrait.

Domitian’s reign involved administrative activity and military conflict, not uninterrupted universal peace. Relations with the elite contributed to hostile memory after his assassination. Modern assessments may acknowledge the effectiveness of particular measures without denying violence and political repression.

Related topics

• Roman Empire
• Emperors of Rome
• The reign of the Julio-Claudian dynasty

Literature and sources

Contemporary authors: - Granger, John D. (2003). Nerva and the crisis of the Roman succession 96-99 London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-28917-3 - Jones, Brian W. (1992). The Emperor Domitian. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10195-6 - Jones, Brian W.; Milnes, Robert (2002). Suetonius: The Flavian Emperors: a historical commentary. London: Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 1-85399-613-0 - Murison, Charles Leslie (2003). " M. Cocceus Nerva and the Flavians "(subscription required). Proceedings of the American Philological Association. University of Western Ontario. 133 (1): 147–157. DOI: 10.1353/apa.2003.0008 - Sullivan, Philip B. (1953). "A note on the accession of the Flavians". Classic magazine. Classical Association of the Midwest and South, Inc. 49 (2): 67-70. JSTOR 3293160 - Syme, Ronald (1930). Imperial Finance under Domitian, Nerva, and Trajan. Journal of Roman Studies. 20: 55–70. DOI: 10.2307 / 297385. JSTOR 297385 - Townend, Gavin (1961). "Some Flavian connections". Journal of Roman Studies. Society for the Advancement of Roman Studies,51 (1 and 2): 54-62. DOI: 10.2307 / 298836. JSTOR 298836 - Waters, KH (1964). "The Character of Domitian". Phoenix. Classical Association of Canada. 18 (1): 49–77. DOI: 10.2307 / 1086912. JSTOR 1086912 - Wellesley, Kenneth (1956). "Three historical riddles in Story 3". The Classical Quarterly. Cambridge University Press. 6 (3/4): 207–214. DOI: 10.1017 / S0009838800020188. JSTOR 636914 - Wellesley, Kenneth (2000) . The Year of the Four Emperors. Roman-Imperial biographies. London: Routledge, p. 272. ISBN 978-0-415-23620-1 - Jones, Brian W. (1984). The Emperor Titus. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-24443-6 - Levick, Barbara (1999). Vespasian (Roman Imperial biographies. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16618-7 Ancient authors: - Cassius Dio, Roman History - Josephus, The Jewish War - Suetonius, On the life of the Caesars - The Life of Vespasian - Tacitus, Agricola - Tacitus, Histories

• The Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Roman Empire