Gaius Marius

Багерман А.Я.

Gaius Marius (157-86 BC) was born in 157 BCE near Arpinum, in the village of Ceretatae, in the former territory of the Volsci. He seemingly came from a rural equestrian family. The Marii were hereditary clients of the Gellii, but they were also connected to the house of the Caecilii Metelli.

According to Plutarch, Marius performed hard labor from a young age, becoming accustomed to enduring hunger, thirst, heat, and cold. When Marius reached the age of enlistment, he joined the military service, starting in Celtiberia, where Scipio Aemilianus was besieging Numantia. Observing the energetic, determined, and hardworking young man, Scipio already predicted a brilliant future for him.

Biography

Marius' political career began in 119 BCE when the hopeful young man sought help from Quintus Caecilius Metellus, and largely thanks to him, obtained the position of plebeian tribune. A year after his term ended, Marius ran as a candidate for the office of aedile but failed in the elections. He then served as a praetor, but did not achieve any remarkable successes in this role either.

Marius, on the civil front, did not possess eloquence nor immense wealth, which at that time was influential in leading the people. However, the citizens highly valued him for his constant efforts and simple way of life (Plut. Mar., VI).

Marius was fortunate and managed to enter a advantageous marriage by marrying Julia, from the prominent Caesar family, which significantly brought him closer to the aristocrats. In 111 BCE, the Jugurthine War (111-105 BCE) began, and the Senate entrusted the command to the consul Quintus Caecilius Metellus. Marius went to this war as a legate, but he himself believed that he owed this appointment not to Metellus, but to his fortunate fate. Marius once again had the opportunity to be in his element of war. In Africa, he quickly gained the favor of the soldiers, "not shunning great efforts and not neglecting the small ones."

"Roman soldiers find it most pleasing to see their commander eat the same bread in front of them, sleep on a simple pallet, or dig trenches and set up palisades alongside them. Marius willingly shared all their hardships, which earned him immense love and respect. From the camp to Rome, people wrote that there would be no end or limit to the war with the barbarians until Gaius Marius was elected consul" (Plut. Mar., VII).

Naturally, such sentiments among the soldiers irritated the acting army commander. Additionally, Marius compelled Metellus to sentence his friend Turpilius to death. Since then, they openly became enemies, and when Marius announced his intention to run for the consulship, Metellus placed various obstacles in his way, releasing him to Rome only twenty days before the consular elections. Upon arriving in Rome, Marius addressed the eager crowd gathered to hear him, pleading for their support to grant him the consulship. He leveled numerous accusations against his former patron, Metellus, and promised to capture Jugurtha alive or dead.

Having been elected consul in 107 BCE, Marius was appointed as the supreme commander of the Roman forces in Numidia. Prior to his departure for Numidia, he began implementing his reform (or as many modern scholars believe, a series of military reforms). Contrary to customs, he enlisted all citizens into the army, disregarding property qualifications. This marked the beginning of the military reform. Military service attracted a multitude of impoverished proletarians since they now had the opportunity to regularly receive pay and gifts from the commander. Furthermore, upon completing their service, landless soldiers could obtain their own land allotment. In addition to the proletarians, Marius supplemented the army with auxiliary units recruited from allies and started summoning the bravest soldiers he knew from previous campaigns, personally persuading those who had already completed their term to accompany him. Under his leadership, the army set off to Numidia, and the war concluded within two years, ending in a complete victory for the Romans. Jugurtha, betrayed by his allies, was captured and brought to Rome, where he was imprisoned in an underground cell on the Capitoline Hill. It was during this time that Marius encountered the individual he would later wage a power struggle against in the final years of his life, namely the young patrician Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Sulla volunteered to negotiate with Bocchus regarding his betrayal of Jugurtha. Sulla successfully fulfilled the task entrusted to him, and for the rest of his life, he wore a ring engraved with the image of Bocchus and himself sitting on chairs while Jugurtha, bound and captured, knelt before them. Even then, Marius began to suspect Sulla's excessive ambitions and thirst for power.

The Reforms of Gaius Marius

Looking at the history of Ancient Rome, we can observe that from the very foundation of the city to the last days of the Western Roman Empire, the state was engaged in almost continuous warfare. Often, it was the steadfastness, courage, military training, and diligence of the soldiers that saved the eternal city from destruction. The reason behind these truly grand achievements lies in the fact that military affairs became one of the main spheres of Roman life from the early days of the state's existence, shaping its character and worldview.

However, it was not only the bravery of Roman soldiers that allowed the initially small city-state to survive in long and bloody wars. Skillful commanders led their armies and often determined the outcome of battles through their personal valor. To a large extent, their successes enabled Roman civilization to occupy a worthy place in the annals of world history.

Gaius Marius became one such commander. Through his perseverance and diligence, he paved the way to fame and honor, making significant contributions to the defense and strengthening of the Roman state. According to Plutarch, even Caesar often sought to emulate Marius (Plut. Mar., VI). The uniqueness of Marius, his talent as a military leader, and his firsthand knowledge of the daily lives of ordinary soldiers largely characterize the military reforms he implemented.

Having been elected consul in 107 BC, Marius was appointed as the commander-in-chief of the Roman army in Numidia. "War demanded enormous material and human resources from the state, so the issue of recruits became particularly acute." At that time, Marius, contrary to custom, began enlisting all citizens into the army, disregarding property qualifications. This marked the beginning of a military reform "dictated by the overall economic and political situation that had developed in the Roman state in the late 2nd century." Military service attracted a large number of impoverished proletarians, as they now had the opportunity to receive regular pay and gifts from the commander, and most importantly, upon completion of their service, landless warriors could obtain their own plots of land.

In addition to the proletarians, Marius supplemented the troops with auxiliary units recruited from allies, and he began summoning the bravest soldiers he knew from previous campaigns, personally persuading those who had already completed their service to join him.

"Just think, fellow citizens," Marius would say at one of the soldiers' gatherings, "what you would achieve if you elected someone from this honorable class with a long line of portraits adorning their walls but no experience in warfare... Compare me to them. What they know from books or hearsay, I witnessed and was an active participant in. What they seek to find in books, I gained through practical experience. I believe that all people are equal by nature, but the noblest is the one most worthy. I am not afraid of being accused of ignorance by them. Indeed, I do not possess the art of organizing feasts, nor do I keep actors and expensive chefs. I am a rustic and simple man..." "As for you, soldiers," Marius would conclude his speech, "remember that I will never abandon you. Amidst dangers, I will always be with you and share your hardships. I will have everything in common with you..." (Sall. Bell. Jug., 85). Plutarch notes that Marius' arrogant words received the most criticism from the most distinguished Romans. However, the people, accustomed to measuring the greatness of the spirit by the eloquence of speeches, rejoiced upon hearing the Senate being insulted and praised Marius as a hero, thus encouraging him to spare no mercy for the best citizens (Plut. Marius, IX). Moreover, Marius knew that he had to fulfill the promise he made to the people. Under his leadership, the army set off to Numidia, and the war was concluded within two years, ending in a complete victory for the Romans. Jugurtha, the Numidian king betrayed by his allies, was captured and brought to Rome, where he was imprisoned in an underground cell on the Capitoline Hill. "For six days, he fought against hunger and clung to life until the last hour, but still suffered a punishment befitting his crimes" (Plut. Mar., VI).

Shortly before the end of the war in Africa, due to his military successes, Marius was elected consul in absentia in 104 BCE. Perhaps the fact that armies of his long-time enemies, the Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and Teutones, were moving towards Rome contributed to the violation of the tradition of a ten-year interval between re-elections to the consulship. As the appointed commander-in-chief in the war, Gaius Marius once again fully justified the hopes placed upon him.

Gathering his army, he arrived in Transalpine Gaul in 104 BCE, but the Germans had already crossed the Pyrenees. Marius adhered to a strictly defensive strategy, not venturing beyond the Roman borders. Meanwhile, the barbarians suffered several defeats in Spain and withdrew to the north, subjugating all the tribes from the Pyrenees to the Seine. In the region of the Volcae (near Rouen), the Cimbri received significant reinforcements, and it was then decided to undertake the long-discussed campaign into Italy. The Cimbri and Teutones planned to enter Italy through the familiar eastern Alpine passes, while the Teutones and Ambrones set off through Roman Gaul towards the western passes.

Marius defeated the Teutones and Ambrones at Aquae Sextiae in 102 BCE; in 101 he and Quintus Lutatius Catulus defeated the Cimbri at Vercellae. These victories ended the immediate threat to Italy but did not mean the disappearance of every Cimbrian population. Late Republican military change was a gradual process, not an instantaneous conversion of the entire army into a professional force by 100. Marius was consul in 107, then for five consecutive years in 104–100, and for the seventh time in 86 BCE. The victories enhanced his reputation and were associated with the honorific description “third founder of Rome”.

In 103 BCE, Marius allied himself with Lucius Saturninus, a plebeian tribune of the people, to counter the Senate, which was dominated by the nobility (the highest aristocracy of Rome). The Senate saw Marius himself as an upstart, as they called him "Homo Novus" (a new man) back then. In ancient Rome, this term referred to a person of humble and little-known origin, or even from the plebeian class, who managed to attain the highest magistracies in the provinces or even in Rome itself. Saturninus helped Marius get elected consul for the third time in 102 BCE and actively fought against Marius' opponents among the nobility and in the Senate. In return, Marius aided Saturninus in becoming a tribune of the people in 101 BCE.

With the active assistance of Saturninus, Marius, through bribes and the support of his veterans, was reelected consul again in 100 BCE. A law was passed for the establishment of veteran colonies in Sicily, Macedonia, and Gaul, and a law was also enacted for the sale of bread at reduced prices. Soon, Marius was forced to sever his alliance with Saturninus due to the latter's radical views, and ultimately, Marius was compelled by the Senate to militarily suppress Saturninus' uprising and that of his supporters in the summer of 100 BCE.

Due to the suppression of Saturninus' uprising, Marius lost the support of the common people and never fully reconciled with the Senate. As a result, he spent most of the 90s BCE until the beginning of the Social War (91-88 BCE) in obscurity as a private citizen. It is unclear in which year during this period he was elected to the college of augurs. At the end of his consulship, he also made a trip to the East, where he met the rising power of Mithridates Eupator.

During the Social War, Gaius Marius fought as one of the legates under the consul Rutilius Lupus in the northern theater of operations. However, due to a series of failures and the deaths of other high-ranking officers, including Lupus himself, Marius was appointed by the Senate as the sole commander-in-chief of the Roman forces in the northern theater. Here, he managed to defeat the Marsi several times. However, his authority was not extended, and although he remained in office, sources claim that Marius relinquished his powers due to old age and illness, as he was already over 65 years old. See Plutarch, "Life of Marius," 32 (according to the 1994 edition).

At the end of the Social War, a confrontation between Rome and Mithridates Eupator erupted in the East over the eastern provinces of Rome. This war seemed like an easy task and promised great wealth and glory. Many politicians began vying for the right to be appointed as the commander of the Roman forces in the East to fight against Mithridates (the First Mithridatic War, 89-85 BCE), but Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla were the most active rivals for this position. In 88 BCE, Sulla was elected as one of the two consuls for that year. Marius, desiring to obtain the coveted post of commander, formed an alliance with the plebeian tribune Publius Sulpicius.

Sulpicius drafted a series of laws: one for the distribution of new citizens among all the tribes (which would have given them full civil rights), one for the return of exiles convicted under the Varian Law, and one for the removal from the Senate of the nobles whose debts exceeded two thousand denarii. However, to implement these laws, he formed an alliance with Marius in exchange for Marius's support in his appointment as the commander of the Roman forces in the East to fight against Mithridates.

Soon, clashes erupted on the streets of Rome, but the balance tipped in Sulpicius's favor. Sulla left Rome to join his troops, but in his absence, Sulpicius enforced his laws and granted Marius the authority of a proconsul. Following Sulla's departure, military tribunes were sent to demand the transfer of command over the army to Marius. However, the troops, who had been prepared in advance by Sulla, who told them that they would be disbanded and replaced with new soldiers with whom Marius would march to the East, beat the messengers of Marius and, together with Sulla, advanced on Rome.

Soon after the battle on the streets of Rome, Sulpicius was killed, and Marius fled from Rome. Sulla, who had taken control of Rome with the support of the people and the Senate, declared Marius, Sulpicius, and their supporters enemies of the state. This is how the year 88 BCE passed. Marius wandered as a fugitive until he settled on the island of Cercina off the African coast, along with some of his supporters. Plutarch provides a detailed account of Marius's wanderings during this period in his work "Parallel Lives - Life of Marius," 35-40, Volume 3 (according to the 1994 edition). While Marius was in exile, Sulla resolved all his affairs and set out for Greece and then to the East to continue the war against Mithridates, serving as a proconsul. In Rome, two new consuls were elected for the year 87 BCE.

One of the consuls, Lucius Cornelius Cinna, attempted to reintroduce Sulpicius's law on the distribution of new citizens among all the tribes, for which he was expelled from Rome and stripped of his consulship. Then Cinna formed an alliance with Marius, gathered troops, and marched on Rome. Marius commanded the troops during the campaign to Rome and eventually, after a brief resistance, managed to seize Rome.

According to ancient sources, after the capture of Rome, a reign of terror began against the opponents of Marius and Cinna. Many contemporaries were shocked not only by the fact of the terror but also by the extrajudicial killings of many politicians who had once served as consuls and proconsuls.

Furthermore, Marius declared himself consul for the year 86 BCE, making him a seven-time holder of that position, without the approval of the assembly of the people. However, shortly thereafter, due to health problems and the mental strain of the previous few months, Marius passed away in January 86 BCE.

The struggle against the Cimbri and Teutones

Marius was consul in 107, 104, 103, 102, 101, 100 and 86 BCE. His five consecutive consulships were therefore in 104–100; he was not consul in 105. After Rome’s defeat at Arausio in 105, he was elected for the following year despite his absence and the usual restrictions on repeated tenure.

He defeated the Teutones and Ambrones at Aquae Sextiae in 102. In 101, together with Quintus Lutatius Catulus, he defeated the Cimbri at Vercellae. Ancient casualty and prisoner figures differ and should not be treated as an exact census. Defeating invading armies does not establish the complete disappearance of every population bearing those names.

Marius’ successes involved training, supply and the choice of battlefield conditions. They do not prove that a citizen army instantly became a permanent professional force by 100 BCE.

Continuation of the reforms

Sallust reports that in 107 BCE Marius recruited volunteers, including poor citizens, without following the usual property-based order. This is important evidence for a particular levy, not proof of permanent abolition of property qualifications for every subsequent army. Citizen conscription continued.

Military pay long predated Marius. Equipment provision, army maintenance and veteran land settlements also developed in different periods. A plot after discharge was not automatically guaranteed to every recruit by a law of 107.

“Marian reforms” is a useful label for discussing changes around the late second and early first centuries BCE, but should not conceal disputed dating and attribution.

Tactical and organizational innovations

Late Republican legions gradually developed more uniform equipment and organisation. The evidence does not securely establish one order by Marius simultaneously abolishing velites, hastati, principes, triarii and citizen cavalry.

Allied and provincial cavalry, archers and slingers were important before his commands. Their deployment depended on individual campaigns and community agreements. They should not be equated with the permanent units of imperial auxilia established later.

Cohort tactics

The cohort became an important tactical unit of the late Republican legion. Grouping several centuries allowed larger detachments to undertake independent tasks. Maniples nevertheless remained in organisational terminology.

Cohorts were used before Marius, and their increasing predominance cannot securely be dated to one order by him. Nominal and actual legion strengths differed: “ten cohorts of 600” was not an exact establishment for every army.

Cohort organisation helped manoeuvre, reserve allocation and coordination, but success depended on training, discipline, terrain and supply. Comparison with the phalanx does not mean that the latter was useless or invariably defeated.

Military Insignia

Pliny the Elder associates Marius with the eagle’s special role as a legionary emblem and describes earlier symbols: wolf, minotaur, horse and boar. The eagle did not first appear under Marius; the change concerned its exclusive prominence among legionary emblems.

There is insufficient evidence that the other four images necessarily denoted four specific troop categories. The legionary aquila and unit standards served different functions, and their representations and materials varied over time.

Change in the Oath Form

The military oath, or sacramentum, bound soldiers to obey command and perform their service. Its forms and circumstances changed over time.

There is no secure evidence for Marius introducing one new lifetime-service oath to replace an annual oath to a consul. Soldiers’ dependence on generals grew through extended campaigns, booty and expectations of reward; it cannot be explained by one change of formula.

Training and Education

Marius had very high requirements for the combat training of soldiers, for whom war became a profession, setting them apart from the previous peasant-militia. Publius Rutilius Rufus, Marius' associate in the Jugurthine War and consul in 105 BCE, compiled new rules for military training, which had many similarities to the training system of future gladiators.

Improvement of the Pilum

During the war with the Cimbri, Marius made changes to the design of the Roman pilum, a throwing spear with a thick wooden shaft measuring one and a half to two meters. According to Plutarch, "previously, the head was fastened to the shaft with two iron spikes, but Marius, leaving one of them in its original place, ordered the removal of the other and replaced it with a brittle wooden nail. As a result, when the spear struck an enemy shield, it didn't remain straight: the wooden nail would break, the iron spike would bend, and the bent tip firmly stuck in the shield while the shaft trailed on the ground" (Plut. Mar., XXI).

Artillery

Roman armies used artillery in siege and defensive operations before Marius. Catapults and ballistae developed from Greek designs; names, dimensions and capabilities varied by period and author.

The evidence does not securely attribute a uniform artillery establishment in every legion to Marius. Descriptions of the late imperial onager likewise should not be treated as part of his reforms.

The onager is known chiefly through late antique testimony, particularly Ammianus Marcellinus. It was a single-armed torsion stone-thrower, markedly different from a two-armed ballista. A single range or projectile weight cannot be assigned to all ancient machines without identifying the evidence.

Plutarch and Sallust emphasise Marius’ attention to discipline, marches and shared hardship. Soldiers prepared food and carried part of their equipment, while the commander sought to share their burdens. These accounts illuminate his practice independently of disputed generalisations about technical reforms.

Results of the reforms

Marius was important in the wars of the late second century BCE and late Republican politics. His levy of 107 and troop preparation deserve attention, but the origins of a permanent professional army cannot be explained by one person and one reform.

Extended service, commands and veterans’ expectations of land increased armies’ political importance. These processes developed gradually alongside continuing citizen conscription.

Ancient accounts of citizenship grants to distinguished soldiers illustrate tensions between military needs and established procedures. Turning armies into instruments of civil conflict also depended on elite rivalry, legislation and individual commanders’ decisions.

Related topics

• Roman Republic
• Lucius Cornelius Sulla
• Throwing Machines
• Legion

Literature and sources

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