Pilum
The pilum was a Roman throwing spear, especially associated with legionary infantry. Republican and early imperial kits combined it with a shield and sword. Number, weight and construction varied; every legionary in every period cannot be assigned an unchanging pair of identical weapons.
Legionnaires with pilums. Metopes of Trajan's Trophy (109 AD). Adamklisi,Romania
Funeral stele of Gaius Valerius Crispa,legionnaire of Legio VIII Augusta. The pilum is clearly visible. The end of the first century AD is found in Mattiakum (modern times). Wiesbaden,Germany)
Sandstone relief (II century AD) depicting three legionnaires holding pilums. Found in the castrum of Croy Hill,Val Antonina,Scotland. Kept at the National Museum of ScotlandHistorical background
The pilum’s origin and precise date of introduction are debated. Early Italic missile weapons offer comparisons without establishing one inventor or a single borrowing route.
In Polybius, heavy-armed hastati and principes carry pila. Velites use lighter javelins; their weapons should not automatically be identified with the same pilum.
Plutarch associates a change in the pilum’s fastening with Gaius Marius. Other variants are known through finds and images. The weapon’s entire history cannot be explained by one reform, nor did the scutum become a legionary shield only under Marius.
Polybius describes two types of pilum carried by a heavy infantryman. This is evidence for a particular period, not an unchanging rule throughout Roman history. Later names such as spiculum require comparison with an author’s context, rather than simple identification with every earlier pilum.
The combat use of the pilum
As the pilum was a throwing spear, its main purpose was to hit the enemy at a relatively short distance. In actual combat, the pilum was thrown by legionaries at the enemy at a distance of up to 35 meters, with the aim of sowing confusion in the enemy's ranks. In addition, a direct hit by the tip of the pilum was a very formidable factor, as heavy variations of this dart could pierce armor and inflict terrible injuries, but even a pilum stuck in a shield served a certain purpose - it effectively deprived the enemy of protection, significantly weighing down his shield, not allowing it to maneuver quickly. And freeing a shield from a pilum was a very difficult task - the barbed top was tightly stuck in the shield, and the long iron tip did not allow to cut off the stuck spear. As a result - the enemy was forced to throw away his shield, remaining defenseless right before the hand-to-hand clash with the ranks of the legionaries.
Gaius Julius Caesar's legionnaires throw pilums at the Helvetic warriors. Drawing by P. DennisIn his "Commentaries on the Gallic War," Caesar vividly described the effect produced by a volley throw of pilums at the enemy: "Since the soldiers launched their heavy spears from above, they easily broke through the enemy's formation... ...A major hindrance for the Gauls was that Roman spears sometimes pierced several shields at once with a single strike and thus nailed them together, and when the tip bent, it could not be pulled out and the warriors could not fight conveniently, as the movements of the left hand were hindered; in the end, many, after shaking their hand for a long time, preferred to throw the shield and fight, having all their body exposed".
There is also mention of the use of the pilum as a regular spear. In particular, this usage of throwing spears made a significant contribution to the victory of Gaius Julius Caesar over Gnaeus Pompey in the Battle of Pharsalus (48 BC): "Noticing that the enemy's left flank consisted of numerous cavalry, Caesar called six reserve cohorts to himself and placed them behind the tenth legion, ordering them not to show themselves to the enemy until they approached at a close distance, then to rush out of the ranks, but not to throw pilums, but to fight them as close-combat spears, effective against cavalry... ...Pompey waited to see what the cavalry would do. They were already extending the line of their squadrons to bypass Caesar and push back his scanty cavalry to the infantry. At this time Caesar gave a sign: his cavalry parted and three thousand soldiers, standing in reserve, moved towards the enemy. Fulfilling their given task, they began to strike upward with their spears and aim at the face. The cavalry, inexperienced in such battles, was terrified and could not stand the blows in the eyes. Riders, covering their faces with their hands, turned their horses and turned into a disgraceful flight."
Pilum structure
In the 3rd-2nd centuries BC, the pilum tip was usually much shorter than the later, most well-known variants. Short tips did not exceed a length of 30-40 cm, and had a wide flat shape. Already by the middle of the second century BCE, the pilum consisted of a long iron tip, roughly equal in length to the shaft, and had a total weight of 1 to 2.5 kg, depending on the specific model. The average overall length of the pilum was usually 2 meters, the tip was 60 cm long, although some findings reach a length of 90 cm. The bottom of the shaft often had an iron tip for sticking the pilum into the ground, if necessary.
Iron tips attached to the lower end of the shaft. First century AD Found in Vindonissa. Stored in the Vindonissa MuseumThe thickness of the tip was usually about 7 mm, and the top was serrated or pyramidal. There were several different ways of attaching the tip to the shaft, for example, the "sleeve" method - an expanding cavity was made at the end of the tip, which was put on the end of the shaft, or the most common attachment using a flat tongue, which was also attached to the shaft with rivets or pins; specific modifications are described separately below.
Drawing of the pilum tips. Approximately III-II centuries BC Finds from: Talamonaccio (a),Ephyra (b) and Castelrufa (c)
Drawing of pilum heads (before AD 9) from a Roman camp on the site of the modern city of Oberaden,Germany
A collection of handpieces in various shapes and sizes. Different methods of attachment to the shaft are clearly visible.Mid-2nd century BC Find from the town of Schmichel,Slovenia. It is kept in the National Museum of SloveniaPlutarch associates Marius with replacing one of two iron pins with a wooden one so that the connection could fail after impact. This describes a particular modification, not the replacement of every fastening throughout the army.
Archaeological pila vary in construction. Bending could hinder reuse or removal from a shield, but every iron shank need not have bent in the same way. Bulges in particular depictions also require cautious interpretation.
Fragment of the stone relief "della Cancelleria" depicting the Praetorians. You can see a pilum with a metal sphere,on which an eagle is engraved. I century AD Rome
Eagle engraved on the pilum,from the stone relief "della Cancelleria"Reenactment
First and foremost, we need to determine the tasks that will be set for the reconstructed sample of the pilum, and based on the tasks set, choose the direct type of reconstruction. In other words, for recreating the image of a legionary and reproducing the equipment of Roman soldiers, a pilum made "according to the combat" sample, that is, from wood and iron, is likely to be suitable. In 1998, British historian Peter Connolly recreated some samples of pilums for testing in field conditions to determine their real effectiveness on the battlefield. During the tests of penetration capacity, it was found that the early Empire model pilum could pierce an 11mm thick plywood sheet, and due to the pyramidal tip, it was difficult to extract, and the tip itself bent, in accordance with the descriptions of narrative sources.
Results of testing the penetration capacity of pilums. 2002,P. Connolly
The result of testing the penetration ability of the pilum by our club members
Legionnaire with a pilum,reconstructionThe club tested a replica against a stationary target consisting of a shield and an animal carcass. This demonstrates the particular replica’s ability to penetrate the selected materials. It does not establish the effectiveness of all ancient pila or reliably determine the outcome of an injury to a person.
List of literature
Bishop, M.C.; Coulston, J.C.N. (2009). Roman Military Equipment from the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford Books;
Connolly, Peter. "The pilum from Marius to Nero: a reconsideration of its development and function", Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies, vol. 12/13
Zhmodikov, Alexander, 2000, "Roman Republican Heavy Infantrymen in Battle (IV-II Centuries B.C.)," in Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, vol. 49 no. 1.
JAMES CURLE, F.S.A. SCOT., F.S.A. A Roman frontier post and it's people. The fort of Newstead in the Parish of Melrose. Glasgow, MDCCCCXI. Originally published by JAMES MACLEHOSE AND SONS for the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland.
Related topics
Literature and sources
Pilum tips from Castrum in Martin Hill 370-380 AD Slovenia. Stored in the National Museum of Slovenia
Pommel of the pilum shaft,with the remaining flat part of the tip,and rivets of unusual shape. 9 AD Found in the Teutoburg forest. Stored in the Kalkrize Park Museum
Connecting parts of three long tips. Approximate dating of 30 BC-30 AD Found in Smichel,Slovenia. Stored in the National Museum of Slovenia
The tip is from Sanchenzo (Trento),has four small hooks on the tip,I century BC.
Decorated with a carved tip with a preserved part of the shaft. VII century BC Found in Satricum. Kept in the National Museum of Etruria Villa Giulia
Tip from Tesero (Italy),II-I century BC is kept in the Museum Magnifica Comunità di Fiemme
Tombstone of Gaius Castricius Victor, Legionnaire II Adjutrix, 90's ADInterested in Ancient Rome beyond reading? Join Legio X Fretensis or explore our reenactment directions.
