Octavian Augustus

Багерман А.Я.

Octavian Augustus was Julius Caesar's heir and the first Roman emperor. After defeating Antony and Cleopatra, he created the Principate: republican titles remained, but military, political and religious power was concentrated around Augustus.

In brief:

• Octavian became Augustus in 27 BCE;
• his system is called the Principate;
• his rule reshaped the army, provinces and imperial power.

Octavian's path to sole rule passed through a legal board of three rulers; its place among Roman coalitions is explained in Triumvirate.

Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus Augustus (born Gaius Octavius Thurinus) was an ancient Roman politician and founder of the Roman Empire. Dates of life: 63 BC – 14 AD. Dates of his reign: 27 BC – 14 AD Although Octavian defeated all his enemies in 30 BC, it took him another three years to restore order to the country and Rome. Therefore, the dates of his reign, many scholars believe from his victory, that is, from 30 BC, and others from restoring order in the state and Rome, that is, from 27 BC. Nickname: Augustus (sacred); "Father of the Fatherland" (Latin: Pater Patriae).

Origin and early life

According to Suetonius, Gaius Octavius was born in Rome on 23 September 63 BCE. His paternal family came from Velitrae, modern Velletri. His father, also Gaius Octavius, became a senator and governed Macedonia; his mother Atia was the daughter of Caesar’s sister Julia. Octavia the Younger, later Mark Antony’s wife, was older than her brother: “Younger” distinguishes her from another Octavia, not from Octavian.

After his father died in 59 BCE, Atia married Lucius Marcius Philippus. His grandmother Julia helped raise him; in 51 he delivered her funeral oration. Following his education, he became close to Caesar and to future associates including Marcus Agrippa.

Caesar supported his entry into the college of pontiffs. Octavian participated in the triumph for the African campaign in 46 and joined Caesar in Spain in 45, arriving after the battle of Munda. Caesar’s will made him principal heir and adopted son. In the winter of 45–44, Octavian studied at Apollonia and prepared for Caesar’s planned eastern campaign. Caesar’s assassination transformed his position.

Fight for Caesar's Inheritance (fight against Caesar's assassins and the 2nd Triumvirate, fight against Mark Antony)

Octavian learned the news of Caesar's death in Apollonia, and from there he went to Rome, where by that time all of Rome and all of Italy had already learned who was Caesar's main heir. By May 44 BC. Octavian arrived in Rome, where he began to strengthen his authority and seek the right to enter into the inheritance of Caesar. Having received the support of Caesar's veterans, Octavian declared that he was Caesar's legitimate heir according to his will and adopted the name "Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian", that is, having completed the adoption procedure. He, because of Antony's refusal to give money from Caesar's treasury, sold part of his property, distributed 300 sesterces to each Roman, which Caesar promised them, and organized games in honor of Caesar's victories. All this led to an increase in his influence, while Mark Antony only lost his authority by his actions, and as a result, by the autumn of 44 BC, he quarreled with some of the senators. He left Rome. Octavian also left for Southern Italy to gather troops. He was able to recruit 10 thousand soldiers and occupy Rome, but he could not convince the people and the Senate to go to war with Antony and retired from Rome to Arretium (modern Arezzo). Antony re-entered Rome in November 44 BC and, after restoring order there, departed for Cisalpine Gaul and laid siege to Brutus' location, Mutina (modern Modena).

As a result, the Senate, with the support of Cicero, who had his own personal scores with Antony, declared war on him and sent troops to Mutina. And Octavian, with the help of Cicero, was given the powers of a propraetor, became a senator ahead of schedule (a seat in the Senate was usually guaranteed by the execution of the magistracy of the Quaestor) and was able to be elected to all positions ten years earlier than the prescribed term. As a result, Octavian, along with the army and two consuls Gaius Vibius Pansa and Aulus Hirtius, moved to Mutina. In April 43 BC. in a series of battles near Mutina, which were “drawn " because Antony and the consuls were able to win one battle each, but in both of these battles both consuls were killed in 43 BC, and Antony fled to Narbonese Gaul. The Senate ordered Gaius to hand over the command of the army to Decimus Brutus, but Gaius did not comply and suggested that until a new election of consuls was held, he and Cicero should serve as suffect consuls. But the Senate denied him this claim and did not allow him to celebrate the triumph for Mutina. As a result, Octavian managed to find out that there was a conspiracy in the Senate against him and Mark Antony. Supporters of the republic wanted to get rid of candidates for the government of Rome, using their mutual hostility.

Upon discovering this, Octavian and Antony immediately made peace. Including the military commander Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in their alliance, they created the so-called 2nd Triumvirate in autumn 43 BCE. After that, they entered Rome with their troops in November of the same year, where they arranged, like Sulla once, proscriptions, during which many high-ranking Roman aristocrats and senators died, in particular, one of the victims of proscriptions was Cicero. Then, after restoring order and leaving part of the forces with Lepidus in Italy, Antony and Octavian set out to defeat the conspirators who had settled with the troops-Caesar's murderers – Gaius Cassius Longinus and Marcus Junius Brutus. Here in Macedonia, near the town of Philippi, two battles took place at Philippi in October 42 BC.e. After their victory, the triumvirs redistributed the provinces. Lepidus remained a member of the college; his final removal occurred only in 36 BCE. Then, according to the treaty, Octavian left for the West, including Rome itself, and Mark Antony for the east. Antony in the east began to prepare for war with Parthia, and Octavian in the west, returning to Rome, began to distribute land to soldiers, including former soldiers of Brutus and Cassius, so that they would not rebel because there were still supporters of the republic who were ready to use these forces. The free land in Italy was already scarce, and the land that was intended to be distributed to veterans was not enough, and Octavian began confiscating land from cities that were opponents of the triumvirs. All these actions caused discontent among the Italians, in addition to this, the food issue became even more acute – the supply of grain from Egypt to Italy and Rome. This supply was disrupted by the naval blockade of the Appennine Peninsula by the fleet based in Sicily, the younger son of Pompey the Great, Sextus Pompey.

Mark Antony's younger brother, Lucius Antony, and Mark Antony's wife, Fulvia, took advantage of the situation. They blamed what was happening (the Italian uprising and the naval blockade of Italy) They promised that Mark Antony would restore the republic after his return from the East. Their agitation was successful not only with Italians, but also with some senators. As a result, the so-called Peruzino (Perusian) war broke out (autumn 41-spring 40 BC). In the summer of 41 BC. Lucius and his loyal troops occupied Rome and marched north from there, hoping to join forces with the regular troops of Asinius Pollio and Ventidius Bassus. But Octavian managed to prevent the two armies from joining and block Lucius Antonius in Perusia (modern Perugia). After a long siege, the city was taken by storm. Lucius and a number of participants in the conspiracy (Fulvia, Ventidius Bassus, and Asinius Pollio) were pardoned by Octavian, and the city of Perugia was given to his troops to plunder, while executing some of the local nobility of this city for their support of Lucius.

A number of survivors of the uprising fled to Mark Antony in the East. Despite his affair with Cleopatra and his preoccupation with preparing for war with Parthia, Mark crossed to Italy and laid siege to the most important port of Brundisium (modern Brindisi). Antony was joined by Sextus Pompey. Everything was heading for a new war between the triumvirs, but their soldiers forced them to reconcile; at Brundisium in 40 BCE they agreed on a new division of the provinces. Antony had all the eastern provinces, Octavian all the western provinces, and Lepidus had only the province of Africa. All triumvirs received the right to recruit new soldiers in Italy. The agreement was sealed by the widowed Antony's marriage to Octavia, Octavian's sister, who had recently lost her husband. The triumvirs ignored the interests of Sextus Pompey, and he resumed the blockade, since Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia were in his hands. Antony, after settling his differences with Octavian, left for the east to prepare for war with Parthia. Octavian and Lepidus set about finalizing the problem with Sextus Pompey's naval blockade. The war with Sextus Pompeius (the revolt of Sextus Pompeius) lasted from 43 to 36 BC. As a result, the triumvirs were able at first to buy time at the price of a truce, in particular, Octavian even married a relative of Sextus Pompey, Scribonia, but then the war resumed again. Sextus lost Sardinia and Corsica because of the betrayal of his supporter. There was a series of naval battles, in which Sextus won the upper hand, and Octavian's fleet was severely damaged, including due to a strong storm at sea.

During the fight against Sextus, Octavian and Mark Antony, from whom Octavian had asked for several ships to help in the fight against Sextus, met in the spring of 37 BC in the city of Tarentum, and extended their term of office as triumvirs for another 5 years. Also, Antony was to lend 120 warships to Octavian for his fight against Sextus, and in return was to receive 20 thousand legionaries for the war with Parthia. Antony fulfilled the condition of the treaty, and Octavian supplied fewer soldiers than he had promised Antony for the Parthian campaign. Octavian, immediately after the renewal of the triumvirate's powers, began to build a new fleet. As a result, Octavian and Lepidus landed with troops in Sicily. As a result, by September 36 BC, Sextus was defeated by sea and land and fled to the east. Lepidus, without waiting for Octavian's arrival, made peace with the Pompeian forces. With a large army in Sicily, Lepidus decided to strengthen his position in the triumvirate and turned against the former ally, declaring the island his territory. Octavian, having a lot of money, was able to win over the army of Lepidus to his side, and the troops of Lepidus left him. Octavian pardoned Lepidus for this betrayal, but removed him from politics. After that, power over Rome and the republic remained in the hands of Octavian and Mark Antony.

The alliance between Octavian and Antony broke down. Antony’s unsuccessful Parthian campaign, his relationship with Cleopatra and his separation from Octavia, Octavian’s sister, became part of their political confrontation. The final war between the rivals began in 32 BCE.

In 31 BCE Octavian and Agrippa won the naval battle of Actium. After Antony and Cleopatra withdrew, Antony’s remaining troops surrendered. Octavian captured Alexandria in 30 BCE; Antony and Cleopatra died by suicide. Egypt came under Roman administration. In 29 BCE Octavian celebrated a triple triumph in Rome for Illyricum, Actium and Egypt.

Establishment of the Empire and the reign of Octavian Augustus

In 27 BCE Octavian received the name Augustus. Republican institutions survived, but military and political predominance rested with the princeps. Control of the principal military provinces, proconsular authority and tribunician powers were especially important. Augustus did not hold the plebeian tribunate: its powers were granted to him separately.

Revisions reduced Senate membership to approximately 600. It continued to discuss affairs, govern some provinces and participate in legislation, but its scope was constrained by imperial predominance.

After the civil wars, the army was reduced and made permanent. There were 28 legions late in Augustus’s reign; the loss of three in Germany in 9 CE left 25. Service terms changed, eventually reaching 20 years for legionaries. Standing fleets, the praetorian guard and veteran payments became important elements of the new order. A military treasury was established in 6 CE.

Provinces were divided between senatorial and imperial administration; their taxation and resources supported the army and government expenditure. Augustus regularised currency, but gold coins had been minted before him. Maritime trade with India developed through Egypt.

Temples, roads and public buildings were restored or constructed in Rome, and night-watch and firefighting services were organised. Marriage and adultery laws promoted the imperial ideal of family morality. After Lepidus died, Augustus became pontifex maximus in 12 BCE. Sextilis was renamed August in 8 BCE, and he received the title “father of the fatherland” in 2 BCE.

Imperial cult developed differently in Rome and the provinces. Dedications to Augustus, Roma and the ruler’s genius expressed loyalty, rather than identical worship of a living emperor as a god in every temple. Augustus and his circle supported poets including Virgil and Horace, whose work shaped the cultural image of the age.

Foreign policy:

Augustus personally participated in several campaigns, although his commanders conducted much of the warfare. The conquest of north-western Spain and operations in the Alps and Balkans extended Roman rule. Expansion into Germany was checked by the destruction of Quinctilius Varus’s three legions in 9 CE. Subsequent operations beyond the Rhine did not result in the enduring provincial incorporation of extensive German territories.

In the East, military force worked alongside diplomacy and client kingdoms. Galatia became a province in 25 BCE. Archelaus’s territories, including Judaea, passed under Roman administration in 6 CE; not all of Herod’s former kingdom was abolished then.

In 20 BCE Parthia returned standards lost during earlier campaigns, including Crassus’s defeat in 53 BCE. This was celebrated as an Augustan victory and appears on the cuirass of the Prima Porta statue. Contacts with India and trade through Egypt expanded; reliable evidence does not establish direct diplomatic relations with Han China under Augustus.

Augustus died in 14 CE and was officially deified.

Family, children and heirs

Octavian’s early marriage to Claudia, Fulvia’s daughter, was connected with his agreement with Antony. His next wife, Scribonia, bore his only daughter Julia in 39 BCE. In 38 BCE he married Livia, who already had a son, Tiberius, and soon gave birth to Drusus. They became Augustus’s stepsons, not simultaneously adopted sons.

Succession arrangements changed repeatedly. Augustus adopted his grandsons Gaius and Lucius Caesar, sons of Julia and Agrippa, but both predeceased him. Julia was exiled to Pandateria following accusations of adultery in 2 BCE. Augustus adopted Tiberius in 4 CE, requiring him in turn to adopt Germanicus. Tiberius became emperor after Augustus’s death.

The image of Octavian in culture

Since Octavian became the first emperor of Rome, many of his statues and portraits on coins have come down to us. This was also possible because Octavian began to inculcate the cult of the emperor in Rome and throughout the empire. But Octavian demanded to portray himself only as a young man, even in old age, which is why it is very difficult to install statues and portraits on coins that convey to us what Octavian looked like in old age. Even the history of Russia in the XVI century was associated with the name of Octavian Augustus, since in the " Tales of the Princes of Vladimir "(a literary monument of the XVI century), the royal origin of the Russian King Ivan IV the Terrible was justified by the kinship of Rurik (the first prince in Russia) with the first Roman emperor - Octavian Augustus, through his brother Prus, whose existence is not known confirmed. In the 17th and 19th centuries, the image of Augustus was interpreted differently in different countries, where he was admired (for example, in England), where he was initially hated for his rule, but when Napoleon came to power, they began to idolize (France). In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the main attention was focused on the problem of the nature of Augustus' power. T. Mommsen fixed in the literature the use of the term “Principate”, which characterized the entire policy of Octavian Augustus. But the essence of the principate was controversial in scientific circles. In the historiography of the first half of the XX century, the emperor's policy towards the army as a pillar of his power was particularly highlighted, which led to his comparison first with European absolute monarchies, and then with totalitarian regimes. In the 20th century, in Italy in the 20-30s, the image of Octavian and his biography were popular, and Benito Mussolini often addressed them in his speeches. In Rome itself and throughout Italy, he financed excavations, rebuilt and restored some of the buildings of the time of Augustus in Rome, and restored, as best he could, the partially preserved Altar of the Peace of Augustus. Among other things, many books and literary works have been written about Octavian, here are some of them: Alan Massey's novel” August "(1986); J. R. R. Tolkien's novel "Augustus" (1986). Edward Williams' novel Augustus (1972; National Book Award, 1973); William Shakespeare's play Antony and Cleopatra (early seventeenth century) and others. Often in historical films and TV series devoted to the history of Ancient Rome, you can also find actors playing Octavian Augustus. Here are some films that mention Augustus or talk about him and his reign: the film “Antony and Cleopatra "(1908,1912); the film "Cleopatra" Peplum (1963); the mini-series "I, Claudius"(1976); a series of mini-films about the Roman Empire, the first film in the series "Roman Empire: Augustus" (2003); the TV series “ Rome”(2005), etc. Also, the first emperor of Rome is the hero of several computer games, here are some of them: Civilization IV and the extended version of Civilization IV: Warlords; Civilization V; the game Total War: Rome II: Emperor Augustus.

Related topics

• Roman Republic
• The Second Triumvirate
• Emperors of Rome
• Roman Empire

Literature and sources

Ancient authors: 1) The Acts of the Divine Augustus. Translated by I. Sh. Shifman, I. Sh. Caesar August, L.,1990, pp. 189-199. 2) Appian. Civil wars. 3) Plutarch. Comparative biographies. Mark Antony. 4) Dion Cassius. Roman history. 5) Nicholas of Damascus. About the life of Caesar Augustus and his upbringing. 6) Suetonius. "The Life of the Twelve Caesars". August. 7) Tacitus. Annals. Often there is a reference to Octavian, although the work itself begins with his death. Contemporary authors: 1) Mashkin N. A. The Principle of August — Moscow; L.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences,1949. 2) Cambridge Ancient History. - 2nd ed — - Volume X: The Augustan Empire,43 BC-AD 69 — - Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1996 In 2 volumes. 3) Nerodo J.-P. August, Moscow: Molodaya gvardiya Publ.,2003, p. 92. 4) Parfenov V. N. The beginning of Octavian's military and political career // The ancient world and archeology. - Issue 4. Saratov,1979. 5) Shifman I. Sh. Caesar August — - L.: Nauka,1990. 6) Goldsworthy A. Augustus. First Emperor of Rome. — New Haven; London: Yale University Press,2014. 7) Scullard H. H. From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome 133 BC to AD 68. — 5th ed. — London; New York: Routledge,2011. 8) Gruen E. Augustus and the Making of the Principate // The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus / Ed. by K. Galinsky. — Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2007 9) Shotter D. Augustus Caesar. 2nd ed. — London; New York: Routledge,2005 10) Grant M. Roman Emperors — Moscow: Terra-Knizhny Club,1998. 11) Parfenov V. N. Imperator Tsezar August: Army. War. Politics. St. Petersburg: Aleteya Publ.,2001. 12. Egorov A. B. Rome on the edge of epochs. Problemy rozhdeniya i formirovaniya principata [Problems of birth and formation of the principal], LSU Publishing House,1985. 13) Zanker P. The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus. — Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,1989. 14. Egorov A. B. Rimskoe gosudarstvo i pravo [Roman State and Law]. Epoch of Empire: a textbook. St. Petersburg: SPbU Publ.,2013. 15) Parfenov V. N. Rome from Caesar to August. Essays on socio-political history. - Saratov: Publishing House of the Saratov University,1987

• Suetonius. Augustus