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Fabrics in antiquity

Евсеенков А.С.

There is a considerable amount of information about the use of fabrics in antiquity, allowing us to create accurate depictions of the people living during that time. Much is known about dyes and trade connections, which enables us to assess the possibilities of fabric coloring. The "triad of sources" has also been preserved, including written and archaeological sources with visual representations, allowing for a precise characterization of fabric density, draping, weaving, and colors.

Material

The most common material for fabrics in antiquity was undoubtedly wool. Almost all findings have wool as the foundation of their weave, with sheep's wool being the most commonly used. It was the most practical and affordable material - it provided good insulation, was durable, and offered excellent protection against unfavorable weather conditions.

In second place for clothing was linen. It should be noted that linen is considered a more expensive material to produce today compared to wool. It was less durable but could produce a cooler and lighter fabric, which was especially beneficial in hot climates. Additionally, the fine texture of linen allowed for versatile draping of fabrics, which was highly valued by the Greeks and Romans. Linen was most common among the Hellenistic peoples in antiquity.

Silk was the rarest type of fabric and was rarely used in clothing, as it was an imported material purchased by Rome at exorbitant prices. The money needed to buy a silk garment could instead buy a decent villa with slaves at that time, so it was considered a great extravagance. Only the elite could afford such luxury, and even then, it was rare.

Weaving

The most common weaving technique in antiquity was plain weave, consisting of fabric fibers interlaced in a simple over-and-under pattern. However, other weaving techniques were known, such as twill and herringbone weaves, which were more prevalent in the northern provinces of Rome and among barbarian peoples (such as the Celts and Germans).

Examples of weaving Celtic fabrics

ne of the most valuable archaeological treasures of Roman textiles can be considered the mass findings in the Cave of Letters (Israel). The Cave of Letters (מערת האיגרות, Me'arat Ha'Igrot) is a cave located in Nahal Hever in the Judean Desert, where ancient texts were discovered, some of which are associated with the period of the Bar-Kokhba Revolt and are estimated to date back to the late 1st century and early 2nd century CE.

All the fabrics found there have a plain weave of wool fibers with varying densities and qualities. The main color palettes include colorless, yellow, cream, white, red, blue, and purple shades. Many of them have interwoven patterns of a different color (clavii and angles, as well as master's marks). The majority of recognized findings were tunics and cloaks. It should be noted that all samples had woven patterns, not sewn or embroidered ones. Below are samples from excavation No. 2.41-35. The edge is reinforced with a 3 (4 4 4) 5(8 4 4 4 2 2) braiding. The warp threads have a thickness of 8-10/1 and a density of 11/cm. The patterns have a denser structure, up to 20/cm. The edge treatment perpendicular to the warp threads is a parallel rope trim.

A Fragment Of Wool Fabric. Cave of Letters. Excavation number 2.41-35. 1-2 century AD
A Fragment Of Wool Fabric. Cave of Letters. Excavation number 2.41-35. 1-2 century AD
A Fragment Of Wool Fabric. Cave of Letters. Excavation number 2.41-35. 1-2 century AD

Fabrics from Egypt

Egypt held a special place in the ancient world of textiles. This ancient region maintained a leading position in both art and light textile production for a long time - during the era of the pharaohs, as part of the Greek state, and as part of the Roman Empire. This combination allowed Egypt to become a stronghold of the most expensive fabrics eagerly sought for export. One of the important reasons for the developed textile industry was the advanced technology of weaving looms. Egyptian fabrics were characterized by their thickness. Local artisans produced the finest fabric in the ancient world, and it was of the highest quality. Linen and wool scraps richly decorated with various patterns and motifs were frequently discovered. This quality also applied to wool and linen products, such as woolen socks, many of which were considered intricate work for that time. Another distinguishing feature of Egyptian textiles was the combination of fabrics made from different materials, most commonly wool and linen.

We know a lot about Egypt's industry thanks to its active trade connections with neighboring states (and later with neighboring regions within the Roman Empire), burial traditions (many useful artifacts were found in tombs), and, most importantly, the climate, which, along with Judea, preserved numerous fabric and leather items.

Fragments of segmental ornaments of Roman clothing from Egypt. Wool and flax. The size of the strips is 40*3.9 cm. The size of a rectangular fragment is 8 * 24 cm. The Walters Art Museum, inv. no. 83.485. 5th-6th century AD
A fragment of Egyptian cloth. Wool and flax. Size 8.5*7cm. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Inv. # 90.5.183. 5th century AD
A fragment of Egyptian cloth. Linen and wool. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Inv. no. 89.18.214. 3rd-4th century AD

Dyeing

In antiquity, the dyeing of fabrics could vary significantly depending on the specific ethnicity. The Celts predominantly used shades of green, blue, and brick in their dyes, while the Romans and Greeks had a greater variety of colors that differed depending on social class. Today, many fabric findings in white/red and blue shades are known, most of which were discovered in Egypt, Judea, and northern parts of the Empire, such as modern-day Germany. This is due to the climate conditions where the fabric could be preserved exceptionally well.

Examples of weaving Celtic fabrics

Written sources

Colorants

1) Madder - Rubia tinctorum. First appeared, presumably in Egypt, no later than 2000 BC. The active substance is alizarin, extracted from the roots with hot weakly alkaline solutions. Madder provides well-preserved coatings with metal oxides, slightly altering its shade.

2) Dyer's Alkanet - Alkanna tinctoria. First appeared, presumably in Egypt, no later than 3500 BC. The active substance is alkannin, extracted from the roots with hot weakly alkaline solutions. Iron and aluminum mordants can change the shades.

1) Safflower - Carthamus tinctorius. It is believed to have originated in Egypt. The active substance is carthamin, which is extracted from the petals in weak alkaline solutions. It can dye without mordants, but the color is not very stable.

2) Henna - Lawsonia inermis. It is believed to have originated in Egypt, no later than 3000 BCE. The active substance is 2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone. The leaves are dried, ground, and the dye is extracted in a weak alkaline solution.

1) Saffron - Crocus sativus. Mesopotamia (?) - around 2000 BCE. The active substance is crocin, which is extracted with weak alkaline solutions.

2) Weld - Reseda luteola. Ancient Greece or Rome. The active substance is luteolin. It was most likely extracted with hot water. It could have been used together with an alum mordant.

3) Dyer's greenweed - Genista tinctoria. Presumably ancient Greece. The active substance is genistein glucoside. It was extracted with weak alkaline solutions or hot water.

4)Greater celandine - Chelidonium majus. Presumably ancient Greece. The active substance is chelidonine.

1) Lichens - Rocella. Minoan civilization around 2000 BCE. The active substance is litmus. It was extracted with weak alkaline solutions.

2) Woad - Isatis tinctoria. It is believed to have originated in Egypt, no later than 2500 BCE. The active substance is indigotin. The leaves were ground with a small amount of water and the mixture was left to ferment in tall pots for about two weeks.

3) Indigo - Indigofera tinctoria. It is believed to have originated in India, no later than 2000 BCE. The active substance is indigotin. The leaves undergo fermentation, then they are vigorously stirred and an oxidizing agent is added.

1) Murex - Bolinus brandaris. Phoenicia, the cities of Sidon and Tyre. The active substance is 6,6'-dibromoindigo. To extract the dye, the flesh of the mollusks was boiled. To intensify the color, the obtained mixture was exposed to the Sun or treated with acidic solutions.

2) Kermes - Coccus ilicis. One of the oldest dyes, from the Neolithic period. The active substance is kermesic acid. The dye is extracted with water, oxidizing agents, or weak alkaline solutions. Pre-mordanting greatly affects the color.

Vida Extract
Extract of gorse dye
Madder Extract

Related topics

Ancient Greece, Rome, Celts, Tunic, Ancient Egypt, Socks

Gallery

A fragment of wool fabric. Late Roman period. Length 31 cm, width 18 cm. Description:Shamir A. 2005. Textiles, BasketryCordage and Whorls from Mo'a ATIQOT 50: 99 152, Pl. 126.
A fragment of wool fabric. Found in Masada. Length 17 cm, width - 7 cm. Description: Sheffer A. and Granger Taylor H. 1994. Textiles from Masada: A Preliminary Selection. In Y. Aviram , G. Foerster, and E. Netzer eds.. Preserved in Jerusalem, 153,256. 1st century A.D.

Ancient Egypt

A piece of cloth depicting the earth goddess Gaia. Flax, wool. Egypt. Tapestry technique. Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. Inv. no. DV-11440. 3-4 centuries A.D.
A piece of cloth with the image of Eros. Flax, wool. Egypt. Tapestry technique. Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. Inv. no. DV-13216. 4th century AD
A piece of cloth depicting Dionysus, Ariandne and the twelve labors of Hercules. Flax, wool. Egypt. Tapestry technique. Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. Inv. no. DV-11337. 5th-6th centuries A.D.
A piece of cloth with an image of the Amazon. Flax, wool. Egypt. Tapestry technique. Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. Inv. no. DV-12959. 5th century AD
A piece of cloth depicting Dionysus and the Maenad. Flax, wool. Egypt. Tapestry technique. Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. Inv. no. DV-11334. 4th century AD
Egyptian flax. The Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. 1st millennium BC
Egyptian flax. The Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. 1st millennium BC
Egyptian flax. Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, 13th-11th century BC
The fabric is patterned. Plant ornament. Wool (tapestry carpet technique). Kerch (Glinishche, stone tomb). Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. no. p. 1890.4. 1st century AD
Egyptian flax. Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, 13th-11th century BC
Egyptian flax. Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, 13th-11th century BC
Egyptian flax. Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, 13th-11th century BC
Egyptian flax. The Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. 1st millennium BC
Egyptian flax. The Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. 1st millennium BC
A fragment of Egyptian cloth. Linen and wool. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Inv. # 89.18.287. 3rd-4th century AD

Cave of Letters