First Triumvirate
The First Triumvirate was the unofficial alliance of Gaius Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompey and Marcus Crassus, formed around 60 BCE. It was not a magistracy or a constitutional office: the three men used mutual support, client networks, armies and wealth to pass measures despite resistance from part of the Senate.
In brief:
- the members of the First Triumvirate were Caesar, Pompey and Crassus;
- the alliance emerged around 60 BCE;
- its main aim was to redistribute influence within the late Roman Republic;
- after the deaths of Julia and Crassus, the alliance collapsed and the conflict between Caesar and Pompey led toward civil war.
Members and political aims
The First Triumvirate united three politicians with different resources:
- Caesar gained support for the consulship of 59 BCE and for his later provincial command in Gaul;
- Pompey wanted ratification of his eastern settlement and land grants for his veterans;
- Crassus defended his clients, the interests of equestrian tax contractors and his own political influence.
The alliance worked because together they could pass measures through popular assemblies, bypass senatorial resistance and support one another with money, client networks and military prestige.
Formation of the First Triumvirate
There is no exact date for the creation of the triumvirate because it was a private political agreement, not an official institution. It is usually dated to 60 BCE, when the interests of Caesar, Pompey and Crassus converged before the consular elections.
Pompey needed ratification of his eastern settlement and land for his veterans. Crassus needed support for the financial interests of his equestrian allies. Caesar needed powerful partners in order to win the consulship and obtain a provincial command that would strengthen his own political position.
Map of the Division of the Roman Republic's Provinces Among the Members of the First Triumvirate: The provinces assigned to Pompey are marked in red; those assigned to Caesar are marked in blue; and the province assigned to Crassus is also marked in red.
Activity of the First Triumvirate
In 59 BCE Caesar became consul and, with the support of Pompey and Crassus, passed laws useful to the alliance. The land measures helped Pompey's veterans, and the political isolation of the second consul, Marcus Bibulus, showed how powerful the bloc of the three leaders had become.
After his consulship Caesar received command in Gaul. His military successes greatly increased his personal prestige and the loyalty of his troops. In 56 BCE the meeting at Luca temporarily renewed the alliance: Pompey and Crassus obtained the consulship for 55 BCE, and Caesar's command was extended.
Collapse of the triumvirate
The alliance rested on personal ties and converging interests, so it was fragile. In 54 BCE Julia, Caesar's daughter and Pompey's wife, died; she had linked the two families. In 53 BCE Crassus was killed during his Parthian campaign at Carrhae.
Once the third partner disappeared, the balance between Caesar and Pompey broke down. Pompey moved closer to the senatorial group, while Caesar did not want to lose his command and return to Rome as a private citizen. The result was Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon in 49 BCE and a new civil war.
Related topics
Roman Republic, Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus, Gnaeus Pompey the Great, Second Triumvirate
Literature
Ancient sources
1. Plutarch. Parallel Lives. Caesar, Pompey, Crassus. 2. Appian. The Civil Wars. 3. Velleius Paterculus. Roman History. 4. Suetonius. The Divine Julius. 5. Cassius Dio. Roman History.
Modern studies
1. Christian Meier. Caesar. 2. Erich S. Gruen. The Last Generation of the Roman Republic. 3. Ronald Syme. The Roman Revolution.
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