First Triumvirate
The Triumvirate (Latin: triumviratus – "union of three men") was a political agreement, a coalition of influential political figures and military leaders in Rome during the period of civil wars in the 1st century BCE, aimed at seizing power in the state.
Ancient authors did not have a consensus on the name of the first triumvirate and its members: Suetonius and Velleius Paterculus referred to this union as societas (alliance, association), while Livy called it conspiratio (secret agreement, conspiracy). Varro, a contemporary of the events and a Roman scholar-encyclopedist and writer of the 1st century BCE, referred to this union as the "Three-Headed Monster," dedicating an entire pamphlet to it. Today, modern dictionaries define the term "triumvirate" as we have presented it at the beginning of our article.
Members of the First Triumvirate:
- Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus – a famous military leader supported by veterans;
- Marcus Licinius Crassus – a political figure and general, backed by the equestrian order;
- Gaius Julius Caesar – a statesman representing the interests of the urban plebs.
Formation of the First Triumvirate
Due to its secretive nature, there is no consensus among ancient or modern authors on the exact date of the triumvirate's formation.
Plutarch, Appian, Livy, and Cassius Dio suggest that the triumvirate was formed in the summer of 60 BCE, before the elections for consuls for the following year, while Suetonius claims it was formed after the elections in the fall of 60 BCE, and Velleius Paterculus dates its formation to 59 BCE. Cicero, a contemporary of the events, hints at the creation of this alliance in a letter to Titus Pomponius Atticus by December 60 BCE.
Modern authors also disagree on the precise timing of the triumvirate's emergence: Robert Étienne believes it emerged in the summer of 60 BCE, S. Utchenko argues it was formed before or immediately after the elections in the fall of 60 BCE, and Adrian Goldsworthy suggests it was established right after the elections.
One way or another, the first triumvirate was formed in 60 BCE when three political figures of Ancient Rome (Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar) were not strong enough individually to seize power in the state, forcing them into this alliance. It was only later, after the formation of the Second Triumvirate, that this alliance came to be called the first, with its members officially referred to as triumvirs.
Both modern and ancient sources agree that the idea and organization of this alliance originated with Gaius Julius Caesar. Each member of the triumvirate had their own goals in joining this union.
Goals of the Participants in the First Triumvirate:
- Gnaeus Pompey wanted to strengthen his power, address the issue of land distribution to his veterans, legitimize the decisions he made in the East, and gain control of Spain. Spain, being close to Rome, would allow Pompey to influence the situation in Rome, and it also had numerous gold and silver mines that would enrich Pompey.
- Marcus Crassus aimed to become even wealthier and more influential, obtain the province of Syria, and launch a campaign against one of Rome’s neighbors to gain the glory of a military victor, like Pompey. He also sought to reduce taxes, catering to the interests of the tax-farmers from the province of Asia, which had recently suffered from the Mithridatic Wars.
- Julius Caesar sought to obtain the consulship, distribute land to Pompey's veterans, legitimize Pompey's decisions in the East, reduce taxes for Crassus' supporters in Asia, and secure the governorship of Cisalpine Gaul to conquer all of Gaul, enriching himself and increasing his popularity, which would give him new political opportunities. Later, Caesar managed to reconcile Pompey and Crassus, who were at odds over glory, power, wealth, and influence. Interestingly, none of the triumvirs had significant support among the senators, but each had backing from the plebs and the equestrian order. Pompey, in particular, was popular due to his veterans in the people's assembly.
The goals of the triumvirs were clearly anti-senatorial, as the Senate had, at different times, hindered each of the triumvirs from achieving their desires individually.
Map of the Division of the Roman Republic's Provinces Among the Members of the First Triumvirate: The provinces assigned to Pompey are marked in red; those assigned to Caesar are marked in blue; and the province assigned to Crassus is also marked in red.
Activities of the First Triumvirate
In 59 BCE, Caesar, with the support of Pompey and Crassus, was elected consul. His colleague was Marcus Bibulus, a supporter of the Senate, with whom Caesar constantly clashed and fought during his consulship. Caesar eventually managed to force Bibulus to practically abandon his powers in protest against his actions. The public even joked that the current year was the consulship of Gaius and Julius (Suetonius. Caesar. 20).
By exerting pressure on the Senate and rarely convening it, Caesar was able to implement a series of laws: a law on land distribution among impoverished citizens and a law on the establishment of colonies, with the Senate having to swear that these laws would be carried out. For Pompey, a law was passed to allocate land to all his veterans, and his orders in the East, issued while he was the commander-in-chief in the Third Mithridatic War, were legally recognized. For Crassus, Caesar managed to reduce the tax-farming sum from the province of Asia by a third. As for himself, Caesar secured the governorship of Cisalpine Gaul, Narbonese Gaul, and Illyricum for five years as a proconsul.
After relinquishing his consulship and attaining the rank of proconsul in 58 BCE, Caesar left for Gaul to prepare and execute the Gallic Wars. Pompey, remaining in Rome as a member of the agrarian commission, which he had been included in during Caesar’s consulship, began allocating land to his veterans. A conflict arose between Pompey and the people's tribune Clodius, who remained in Rome to represent Caesar's interests. Caesar managed to smooth over the differences between Clodius and Pompey, and after a general reconciliation, the politicians were able to extend the triumvirate's mandate for another five years at a meeting in Luca in 56 BCE.
In Luca, they decided the following: Pompey and Crassus would become consuls in 55 BCE and then serve as governors in Spain (Pompey) and Syria (Crassus) for five years, while Caesar, for an additional five years, would retain his governorship in Gaul. This is what they did. After his consulship, Crassus left for Syria and began preparing for a military campaign against Parthia, Caesar continued the Gallic Wars in Gaul, and Pompey, staying in Rome, sent a subordinate to govern Spain and continued to participate in the political administration of Rome.
The Dissolution of the Triumvirate
The dissolution of the triumvirate was caused by two tragic events:
- The death of Julia, Pompey's wife and daughter of Gaius Julius Caesar, in 54 BCE;
- The death of Marcus Crassus in Syria during the Parthian campaign in the spring of 53 BCE.
After these deaths, the triumvirate ceased to function and disbanded. The remaining members, Caesar and Pompey, gradually began preparing for war against each other for power, which eventually led to a civil war that ended with Caesar's victory.
Related topics
Roman Republic, Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus, Gnaeus Pompey the Great, Second Triumvirate, Cicero
Literature
Ancient authors:
1. Plutarch. Comparative biographies.
2. Appian. Civil wars.
3. Vellei Paterkul. Roman history
4. Titus Livy. Periochs. Excerpts from his "History from the foundation of the City".
5. Suetonius. Caesar.
6. Cicero. About the State // Dialogues, Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1966, pp. 7-88.
7. Marcus Tullius Cicero. Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1993, Vol. 1, 448 p.
Contemporary authors:
1. Utchenko S. L. Tsitsero i ego vremya [Cicero and his Time], Moscow: Mysl', 1973; 2nd ed., Moscow, 1986, 352 p. - 150,000 copies.
2. Cicero: 2000 years since Death: Collection of articles / Ed. by N. F. Deratani, Moscow: MSU Publishing House, 1959, 176 p. - 8000 copies. 3. Tsitsero: Sb. st. / Ed. by F. A. Petrovsky. - Moscow: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1958. - 152 p — - 8000 copies.
4. Etienne R. Caesar, Moscow: Molodaya gvardiya Publ., 2003, pp. 82-83.
