Unification of Italy under Roman Rule
The name "Italy" initially referred only to the region inhabited by a small group called the Italics or Italians (F ιταλοί, vituli, hence the Oscan Vitellium), which occupied the southern tip of Bruttium (now the provinces of Reggio and Catanzaro) up to the Skylacian and Terinaean gulfs. The name is first mentioned by the Rhegian poet Hybrias around 500 BC, but the spelling and pronunciation of the digamma in the word indicate its ancient origins. Soon, the name Italy was extended to the entire Bruttium region up to the river Lao and the area around the city of Metapontum.
The main stages of the unification of Italy under Roman rule can be divided into the following phases:
When the Oscans developed a legend about their shared origins with the Greeks, the name Italy came to refer to the country occupied by them. By the treaty of 241 BC with Carthage, Italy was understood to mean the entire peninsula up to the Rubicon River, and by the next century, this name was firmly established for the entire country up to the Alps. The Alps became part of Italy only under Diocletian, when three more regions were added to the eleven regions into which Augustus had divided Italy.
Initially, Rome was an ordinary city in Latium and was part of a league of 30 Latin cities. At the end of the regal period, Rome assumed a dominant position in Latium; its growth and expansion began to alarm the Latins. With the expulsion of the Etruscan king Tarquin the Proud from Rome (510 BC), the Etruscan king Lars Porsenna besieged Rome. The Latins and the Greek inhabitants of Campania came to Rome's aid. Together, they achieved victory.
However, after repelling the common threat, relations between the Romans and the Latins deteriorated, leading to the so-called First Latin War. It lasted several years and ended around 493 BC with a peace treaty. Rome was forced to enter into a new alliance with the Latins on the terms of non-interference in their internal affairs, mutual military assistance, and equal sharing of spoils.
The peace and alliance between Rome and the Latins were due to the common threat from the Volsci, Aequians, and Sabines. However, the most formidable opponent of Rome throughout the 5th century BC was the wealthy Etruscan city of Veii. The Romans sought to seize the fertile territory of the Veientines and control both banks of the Tiber River, along which salt was transported. The salt warehouses were located in Rome at the foot of the Aventine Hill, from where the Via Salaria (Salt Road) began, stretching through Sabine territory. Veii was conquered only at the beginning of the 4th century BC.
Further Roman expansion was temporarily halted when they themselves became the target of attacks by the Celts, or Gauls. In the 6th century BC, some Gallic tribes left the Danube Valley, and in the 5th century BC, they appeared in Northern Italy. They settled in the Po Valley and founded the fortress of Mediolanum (modern-day Milan). In the 4th century BC, the Gauls began to move south into Etruria. At that time, the Etruscans allied with the Romans. In 390 BC, a battle took place at the River Allia (a tributary of the Tiber), in which the Gauls emerged victorious. They advanced on Rome, captured it, and burned it. The only part of Rome that remained in Roman hands was the fortified Capitoline Hill. The story of how the Gauls left Rome varies; the most credible version suggests that Rome bought them off with gold.
The Gallic invasion weakened Rome. It took considerable effort and resources to rebuild the city and surround it with walls again. The weakened state of Rome was exploited by the Volsci, Aequians, and Etruscans, who attacked it. They were joined by the Latins and Hernici, leading to the de facto dissolution of the Roman-Latin alliance.
Throughout the 4th century BC, Rome and other Italian peoples were repeatedly threatened by the Gauls. This prompted the renewal of the Roman-Latin alliance (in 358 BC), which was joined by other communities in Central Italy. Relying on this alliance, Rome overcame difficulties and even pushed back the Etruscans and Volsci, on whose lands it established new colonies.
Rome's international prestige also grew, as evidenced by treaties with other city-states and tribal alliances: with the Samnites, with several cities including the Latin Tusculum and the Etruscan Caere, and with Carthage. Thus, by the mid-4th century BC, Rome had become a powerful state in Italy.
After establishing their dominance in southern Latium, the next region neighboring Rome was Campania, which was not ethnically or politically unified. In the mountainous part of Central Italy, a confederation of Samnite tribes emerged. In 343 BC, they attacked the largest Campanian city, Capua. The Campanians sought help from Rome. The temptation to establish control over Campanian land was too great, and Rome decided to go to war against the Samnites. This First Samnite War (343-341 BC) ended in a Roman victory.
Roman successes alarmed the Latins. The leaders of the Latin cities demanded that one of the consuls and half of the Roman Senate be elected from among the Latins. Rome's refusal led to the so-called Second Latin War (340-338 BC). The Latins and Campanians were defeated.
The Romans captured Capua and Neapolis (Naples). This led to the Second Samnite War (327-304 BC). The Romans then attempted to penetrate the mountainous Samnium but were ambushed by the Samnites at the Caudine Forks (321 BC) and forced to surrender. The victorious Samnites subjected them to a humiliating ritual: disarmed and half-naked, the Roman soldiers, led by their consuls and military tribunes, were made to pass "under the yoke," a makeshift archway made from their confiscated weapons, amid jeers and insults from the Samnites. It took several years for Rome to recover from the Caudine defeat. Lessons were learned from the experience, leading to modifications in Roman military tactics. By the end of the 4th century BC, Roman dominance was undeniable. In 304 BC, the Samnites sued for peace.
However, soon new waves of Gauls advanced into Northern Italy from beyond the Alps. The Etruscans joined the anti-Roman campaign. The Samnites took advantage of Rome's precarious position, leading to the Third Samnite War (298-290 BC). The Romans emerged victorious, thanks in large part to the talents of General Manius Curius Dentatus. As a result of the Third Samnite War, the Samnite Confederation ceased to exist.
In 285 BC, the Gauls again invaded Etruria but were defeated. The Roman colony of Sena Gallica was founded on the Adriatic coast, the first Roman colony on Gallic land.
Related topics
Roman Republic, Etruscans, Latins, Aequians, Gallic Invasion, Camillus' Military Reforms, Samnite Wars, War with Pyrrhus
