Gladiator helmets

Мыслевцев А.С.

Galea and cassis are Latin terms for a helmet. Gladiatorial examples often feature extensive face protection, broad brims, crests and elaborate decoration. Full face protection was not exclusive to gladiators: masks are also known in Roman cavalry equipment.

The following is a working classification by construction, not an official ancient nomenclature:

Type I — helmets associated principally with the provocator.
Type II — the smooth enclosed secutor helmet with small eye openings.
Type III — broad-brimmed, crested helmets associated with the murmillo, hoplomachus and thraex.

Some images of equites, dimachaeri and supposed scissores do not allow confident assignment to one of these classes. Surviving objects must be distinguished from artistic representations.

Type I

It is assumed that Type I helmets were used mainly by provocatores. In their design, they are the closest to the classic Imperial infantry helmets. The helmet dome is a single structure with a typical legionnaire helmet shape and back of the head. From them, he also inherited the "visor" from the upper strokes. The main differences are the cheekpieces, in this case expanded to a full-fledged mask that protects the entire face, which are already characteristic of gladiators, as well as other types of hammered helmet decorations. The best-preserved helmet exhibit is the provocateur helmet from Pompeii, found in the portico of theaters and kept in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples. It is made of bronze, richly decorated with chased decoration. On the frontal part of the helmet is one of the supreme symbols of triumph, victory and glory-an eagle holding a wreath in its beak. On the upper part of the helmet up to the back of the head is a rich vegetation, it is assumed that it was also a symbol of victory, abundance and good luck. And on the very back of the head there is an image of the provocateur's own equipment - a helmet, scabbard, manica, shield with a digma (drawing). Interestingly, the helmet is also decorated, which is an example of the simplest recursion. On the front part there are also 2 complex chiseled images of human faces, presumably gods. The helmet has through holes for inserting feathers. In addition to the chased decoration, it has less noticeable decorations - engraving patterns located between the main drawings.

The provocateur's helmet. Bronze. Pompeii,portico of theaters. National Archaeological Museum,Naples,inv. no. 5658. Mid-1st century

The provocateur's helmet. Bronze. Pompeii,portico of theaters. National Archaeological Museum,Naples,inv. no. 5657. Mid-1st century

Identifying a helmet and matching it to a specific type of gladiator is not a trivial task due to the wide variety of both the gladiators themselves in the pictorial sources and the helmets found. For example, the provocateur has bas-reliefs that fully correspond to the characteristics found (Pompeii), and clearly have a slightly different type (Turkey). Perhaps this indicates the local distinctive features of gladiators, which differ depending on the region. There are also pictorial sources with provocatores with helmets without masks, which, with the exception of feathers at the temples, completely repeated infantry helmets.

A provocateur without a mask. Relief from the Tiber River,Rome,1st century AD

A classic provocateur from Pompeii. National Museum of Naples. Mid-1st century AD

Bas-relief with a provocateur. Ephesus Museum,Turkey. 1st century AD

Images of equites show helmets whose features do not fit the proposed groups exactly. Attribution is still less secure for supposed dimachaeri. A “Type I–III hybrid” is a modern description of visible features, not an established ancient product designation.

Dimachery. Neues Museum. 1-2 century AD

Bas-relief with equitum. 1st century AD

Diemacher. 1-3 century AD

Type II

The second group consists principally of secutor helmets. Their smooth profile and small eye openings distinguish them from helmets with grille-like face protection. The neck guard and low crest vary between objects. Associating a similar helmet with a supposed scissor depends on identifying the entire figure.

Gladiator helmet type II. Pompeii. National Archaeological Museum,Naples,Inv. 5643. Mid-1st century AD

Gladiator helmet type II. Pompeii. National Archaeological Museum,Naples,Inv. 5636. Mid-1st century AD

Gladiator helmet type II. Pompeii. National Archaeological Museum,Naples,Inv. 5642. Mid-1st century AD

Smooth secutor helmets can be recognised in reliefs, mosaics and statuettes. Artistic simplification and the condition of the monument can nevertheless complicate identification. A smooth face covering alone does not establish a particular gladiator class.

Bas-relief with secutor. Found in the Kibyra necropolis,Burdur Museum. 2-3 century AD

Bas-relief with scisser. 1-3 century AD

Terracotta statuette of a secutor. 1st century AD

Type III

Type III helmets were used by Murmillones, Hoplomachi and Thracians. Murmillones and Thracians were the most popular types of gladiators, making them the frequently represented classes. These were composite helmets with a large dome on which the crest was located. Sometimes it was decorated with feathers., They were also inserted on the sides of the helmet in the corresponding holes. Also characteristic structural element was a wide rim around the perimeter of the dome of various sizes and shapes, which gave the helmet a unique shape for the ancient era as a whole. Consider one of the most interesting examples from the Pompeii collection, also found in the portico of theaters. This type III helmet has a protective protrusion around the perimeter, so we can say that this is in some sense the maximum lengthened in width of the back of the head. The front part rather had visual functions. Above the ledge, a chased decoration depicts the plot of the triumph - Victoria is depicted on the sides, followed by a captured barbarian and the traditional element for the triumph- "trophy". Unusual for gladiator helmets is the image of a military standard in the center. The helmet has holes for inserting feathers. There is also a "crest holder" for replaceable crests, which most likely were worn on the main exits. It is also interesting that in this helmet, the eye net could open regardless of the cheekpieces.

Gladiator helmet type III. Found in Pompeii. Bronze. Weight-2.8 kg. British Museum. Inv. 1946. 1st century AD

Gladiator helmet type III. Pompeii. National Archaeological Museum,Naples,Inv. 5673. Mid-1st century AD

Gladiator helmet type III. Herculaneum. Berlin Antiquarium. Inv. L87. Mid-1st century AD

The main distinguishing feature of the Thracian helmet, which distinguishes it into a separate subtype, was the griffin, located on the top of the ridge. Like the classic Murmillo, it could be decorated with feathers, chased decoration and engraving.

Gladiator helmet type III. Pompeii. National Archaeological Museum,Naples,Inv. 5649. Mid-1st century AD

Gladiator helmet type III. Pompeii. National Archaeological Museum,Naples,Inv. 5650. Mid-1st century AD

Type III helmets are easily recognized in bas-reliefs, frescoes, figurines, and mosaics. There are just a huge number of them preserved, so a lot of information is known about this type of helmet.

Bas-relief with gladiators from Pompeii. Mid-1st century AD

Bronze figurine with hoplomakh. Neues Museum,Berlin. 2nd century AD

Bas-relief with a Thracian. Found in Ephesus. Ephesus Museum,Turkey. 1-3 century AD

Literature and sources

Coulston J.C.N. Gladiators and soldiers: personnel and equipment in ludus and castra // Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies. Vol. 9. 1998. P. 1.
Junkelmann M. Das Spiel mit dem Tod. Mainz am Rhein,2000. S. 33.
Welch K. The Roman arena in late Republican Italy: a new interpretation // Journal of Roman Archaeology. Vol. 7. 1994.
Wiedemann T. Emperors and gladiators. L.,1992. P. 26.
Waurick G. Helme der hellenistischen Zeit und ihre Vorläufer //Antike Helme. Handbuch mit Katalog. Monographien des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums. Band 14. Mainz,1988. S. 159. Abb. 22.
Vickers M. Recent acquisitions by the Ashmolean museum // Archäologischer Anzeiger. 1981. S. 559.
A Boeotian helmet with volutes from the second century BC, presumably from Athens, is now in the Hamburg Museum of Arts and Crafts (Hamburg Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe). See: Dintsis P. Hellenistische Helme. (Archaeologica 43). Rome,1986. Taf. 6,2.
Ritti T., Yilmaz S. Gladiatori e Venationes a Hierapolis di Frigia // Atti della Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei. Ser. IX. Vol. X. Fasc. 4. Roma,1998. P. 467. - Gladiators-Konstantin Nosov. pdf
Gladiators: Types and Training — Metropolitan Museum of Art