Roman Army helmets

Evseenkov A.S.

Galea or Cassis - (Latin: Galea / Cassis) - is an ancient Roman name for a helmet. In the Roman army, the helmet was one of the main pieces of protective gear and was used by all combat units, such as legionaries, auxiliaries, and praetorians. It was typically worn together with a padded cap, made of felt, fabric, or leather.

Helmets in the Roman army did not provide complete head protection - the face was always left uncovered, which was not a significant issue due to the tactics employed. The exception was cavalry and certain distinguished groups, whose faces could be covered with a mask. The helmet was designed to protect the cheeks, crown, and back of the head, so the metal covered almost everything, leaving only the ears and face exposed. In a combat stance, the back of the helmet also protected part of the neck and back, leaving only a small area vulnerable to attack.

Background

Helmets were used by almost all peoples of the ancient world. In Ancient Rome, the first models may have been influenced by Celtic culture, where this type of protective equipment was particularly widespread. The initial Roman helmet designs were largely copied from the Celts. This type of helmet was named "Montefortino" after a Celtic burial site in northern Italy called Monte Forte. The early models, unlike the imperial helmets, did not have such large neck guards and had slightly different protective characteristics. Bronze alloys were the most common materials used to make such helmets. There are theories that helmets could have been produced not only by forging but also by casting, and a combination of methods may have been used (casting the rough shape and then refining it through forging). On the crown of the helmet, there was often a fixture for a plume in the form of a small "cone" into which feathers or horsehair were inserted. The Montefortino helmet was used from the 4th century BCE to the 50s CE.

Helmets in the Roman Army during the Principate Era

At the beginning of the Principate era, the Montefortino helmet was replaced by a new type of helmet commonly referred to as the Imperial helmet. However, it should be noted that the transition did not happen instantaneously, and the Montefortino helmet was still used alongside the Imperial type throughout the 1st century CE. The Imperial helmet was used by Roman legionaries from the 1st to the 3rd centuries CE. Helmets are often named after the places where they were found, such as Weisenau for the German examples of this type. The ancient historian Connolly divides the Imperial helmet type into two subtypes: Italic and Gallic. The main difference between them, according to which the classification was made, lies in the fact that Gallic helmets had relief wave-like patterns ("eyebrows") on the frontal part. This division is somewhat arbitrary due to the diversity of finds, making the classification of individual specimens problematic. Connolly also suggests that auxiliaries used helmets similar to those of legionaries but simpler and cheaper to produce. There is also a theory that worn-out equipment used by legionaries was handed down to auxiliaries. However, due to the stylization introduced by artists in surviving depictions, it is currently difficult to distinguish between legionary and auxiliary helmets.

Imperial helmets were made of bronze and iron alloys. Over time, iron gradually replaced bronze, which still dominated in the 1st century CE (a significantly larger number of bronze helmets have been found). The situation changed drastically by the 2nd century CE, with the majority of archaeological finds from this period being made of iron. Imperial helmets consisted of a solid dome with two cheek pieces hinged to it. They were often richly decorated with metal appliqués, embossing, enamel, and sometimes silver-plated. The metal, especially iron, could be treated to enhance corrosion resistance. The dome of the helmet was reinforced with cross-shaped ridges to provide additional strength against top blows. Visors were used for additional facial protection, and neck guards were used to protect the back of the head and neck.

It is also worth noting the lifespan of the helmets. In the Roman army, there was a tradition of signing one's belongings to indicate ownership and prevent theft. Helmets bearing three names have been found. Even if we assume that not all owners survived their service, the period of helmet usage still turns out to be significant—around 50 years.

Helmets in the Roman Army during the third century crisis and Dominate era

By the late 2nd century CE, the "Niederbieber" type helmets became prevalent in the Roman army, representing the pinnacle of helmet evolution during the Principate era. According to archaeological findings, helmets of this type could be entirely made of bronze or steel, as well as steel with bronze elements.

These helmets remained in use until the last decades of the 3rd century CE, and according to some sources, even into the first decade of the 4th century CE. However, from the second half of the 3rd century, the Niederbieber-type helmets began to be replaced by simpler ridge helmets. Their skull caps were assembled from two halves and connected by a lateral ridge, in clear imitation of Persian helmets. Intense wars with the Persians persisted throughout the 3rd and 4th centuries. These helmets are often divided into two major categories: Intercisa, the most common in archaeology and iconography, representing helmets of ordinary soldiers, and Berkasovo, mostly considered as cavalry and officer helmets. However, findings of helmets from both types often bear traces of gilded foil, embossing, and some specimens are lavishly adorned with gemstones and colored glass.

Crests and Officer Helmets

Officers likely used the same type of helmet as legionaries, but with some modifications. Representatives of the standard-bearer group could wear it together with a face mask and attach the skin of a predatory animal on top. Centurions attached a transverse crest (or plume) made of horsehair or feathers to their helmets. For this purpose, a "rosette" for holding the crest was located on the helmet's crown, and two rings for fixing it in a transverse position were placed on the sides. There is a version, often encountered among Western reenactors, that optios used longitudinal crests and a pair of feathers inserted on the sides, but there is no archaeological evidence to support this. There is only one finding of an imperial helmet with inserts on the sides, but it is a matter of debate whether they were used for feathers and whether it was indeed an optio's helmet.

The discovery of a comb with black horsehair and numerous "forks" for attaching crests to helmets of various constructions and shapes provides evidence of the probable use of crests on helmets. The crests were attached to the sides of the helmet using cords tightened through rings located near the ear openings if the helmet belonged to a centurion, or on the forehead and back of the head if the crest was attached longitudinally. For legates and praetorians, the crest could also be attached longitudinally, and the plume could be inserted into a special groove, similar to a "cassette."

Reenactment

Most helmets would be suitable for both legionaries and auxiliaries. The key is to choose the correct period for reconstruction. Since there is information that helmets could change hands multiple times, their period of use could exceed 50 years! This means that earlier helmets could be used at the beginning of the second century, but not vice versa—later helmets cannot be used for earlier periods. There are two approaches to helmet production in reconstruction: authentic one-piece construction and stylized welded construction. The latter is cheaper and recommended to start with, using the simplest and least expensive type, such as the Imperial Italian J1, for example. Later, one can strive for more interesting and authentic variations.

Similar topics

Legionnary, Auxiliary, Centurion, Vexillarius, Praetorian, Celts, Optio

Literature

Connolly, Peter. Greece and Rome. Encyclopedia of Military History. Moscow: EKSMO-Press, 2001. ISBN 5-04-005183-2.

d'Amato, Rafael, and Andrey Negin. Decorated Roman armour.

Early to mid first century

Mid to late first century

Early to mid second century