Centurion
A centurion (Latin centurio) commanded a century in the Roman army. The name is related to “one hundred”, but does not prove that his unit always contained a hundred men. Centurions served outside the legions as well; their position and the strength of their units varied with period and formation.
The centurion supervised training, discipline and the direction of soldiers on campaign and in battle. Senior centurions could receive larger or detached commands. Comparison with a modern company commander is approximate and does not capture the full organisation of Roman service.
Tombstone of Quintus Sertorius Festus, centurion of XI Claudia Pia Fidelis. First century CE; Museo Lapidario Maffeiano, Verona, inv. 28160.
Tombstone of Marcus Petronius Classicus in the centurion monument collection. A precise date is not established here without a catalogue reference.
Tombstone of Marcus Favonius Facilis, centurion of the Twentieth Legion. Colchester, mid-first century CE; Colchester and Ipswich Museums.General information
The centurionate had an internal hierarchy whose highest legionary position was primus pilus. A man could rise through appointments in different centuries and units; inscriptions also document transfers between legions. A legionary could advance through junior appointments, but direct appointments to the centurionate also existed.
Vegetius’ account of advancement through the cohorts should not be turned into a compulsory career of sixty consecutive steps. Rank, seniority and a particular command were not identical. The sources do not establish universal rules requiring a new century every four months or promotion to primus pilus only at the age of forty to fifty.
Stele of Marcus Pompeius Asper recording military appointments. The units and career stages should be read from the inscription rather than inferred from the image alone.Appointment procedures changed. In Polybius’ Republican account, VI.24, preference is given not to recklessly daring men but to dependable leaders able to hold their position. In the imperial period, the centurionate combined advancement of experienced soldiers with appointments influenced by social standing and patronage. A universal minimum age of thirty is too categorical.
In daily service the centurion directed training and work, enforced discipline and supervised the readiness of arms. The optio assisted him. A centurion’s pay could greatly exceed ordinary soldiers’ wages; the ratio depended on rank and period, so a general multiplier of two to four is unsuitable for every centurion.
Tacitus, Annals I.23, describes the centurion Lucilius, nicknamed Cedo alteram, “Bring another”: he broke vine rods while punishing soldiers. He was killed during the mutiny of 14 CE. The episode illustrates abuse of power, not a statistical account of all centurions’ conduct.
Centurions directly led their men in battle and faced substantial danger. Without comparable data, however, one cannot claim that their mortality was invariably the highest throughout the army.
Centurions Hierarchy
A maniple in the manipular legion had two centurions, whose seniority was expressed by prior and posterior. Appointments also differed among hastati, principes and triarii. Later cohort organisation retained traditional titles even when these no longer necessarily denoted different equipment categories.
A normal Principate cohort is commonly described with six appointments: pilus prior, princeps prior, hastatus prior, pilus posterior, princeps posterior and hastatus posterior. This is a useful seniority scheme, not proof of compulsory advancement through every position in sequence. A centurion’s standing also depended on his cohort.
The primus pilus was the legion’s senior centurion, associated with the first cohort and the aquila. The first cohort had a special organisation: models of sixty and fifty-nine centurions cannot both be treated as a permanent establishment. Nor should the size of every Principate command be deduced from Vegetius’ late antique figures.
The office of camp prefect could follow service as primus pilus. The prefect supervised the camp, works and material provision but was a separate senior commander, not another name for the serving primus pilus.
Centurions’ equipment
The most characteristic emblem of a centurion’s authority was the vitis, a vine rod. Transverse helmet crests and greaves are known from images and literary evidence but do not form a compulsory kit for every centurion in every period. Tombstones also show centurions without armour.
Mail, scale or other armour, a subarmalis and awarded phalerae should be selected from particular evidence. Sculpture cannot securely identify the materials of all concealed clothing layers. Some monuments show a gladius on the left, but this detail too must be checked for the chosen period.
The scutum, cingulum and pugio belonged to the wider military equipment repertoire. Rich decoration was possible but is not the sole criterion of centurion rank; awards, emblems of authority and an inscription matter more than an assumed luxurious uniform.
Tombstone of Marcus Caelius, centurion of the Eighteenth Legion, killed in the Varian war of 9 CE. LVR-LandesMuseum, Bonn. Decorations appear on his chest; the appointment of primus pilus should not be inferred from ornament alone.
Roman relief from Museo Civico agli Eremitani, Padua, presented as a centurion monument. A precise date and personal identification require a catalogue reference.
Tombstone of Titus Calidius Severus from Carnuntum, first century CE. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. Its inscription records service as cavalryman, optio and decurion of the First Cohort of Alpines, then centurion of XV Apollinaris.List of centurion’s potential apparel:
1) Civic Crown
2) Armillae
3) Phalerae
4) Lorica Squamata, Lorica Hamata, Lorica Musculata
6) Subarmalis
7) Vitis
8) Ocrea
10) Tunic
12) Liner
13) Cingulum
14) Gladius
15) Pugio
16) Focale
17) Socks
18) Subligaculum
19) Fibula
20) Rings
21) Scutum
22) Fascia ventralis
Modern diagram of reconstructed centurion equipment, labelled in Russian. Not evidence for a single compulsory ancient uniform.Reenactment
A reconstruction should begin with a particular monument, its date and inscription. The Colchester tombstone of Marcus Favonius Facilis shows a centurion in a cloak with the vine rod; that of Marcus Caelius of the Eighteenth Legion depicts a decorated soldier with phalerae and a crown. They are different images, not components of one compulsory dress uniform.
Civil clothing, campaign equipment and a decorated appearance can serve different reenactment purposes. The absence of belt pendants cannot be made a universal rule, nor should an award crown be added simply because a centurion is being portrayed. Modern reconstructions in the illustrations are interpretations, not independent ancient evidence.
Primipilus, reenactment
Centurion wearing civil outfit, reenactment 
Junior centurion, reenactmentRelated topics
Legion, Legionary, Award Wreath, Armillae, Phalerae, Lorica Squamata, Lorica Hamata, Lorica Musculata, Sagum, Paenula, Subarmalis, Vitis, Ocrea, Calcei, Caligae, Tunic, Helmet , Liner, Cingulum, Gladius, Pugio, Focale, Socks, Subligaculum, Fibula, Rings, Scutum, Fascia ventralis, Crown
Literature and sources
- Caesar. The Civil War.
- CIL. Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum.
- Dessau H. Inscriptiones Latinae selectae. Berlin, 1892–1914.
- Josephus. The Jewish War.
- Pliny the Elder. Natural History.
- Tacitus. Histories; Annals, I.23.
- Tertullian. De corona, early third century CE.
- Vegetius. Epitome of Military Science, Book II.
- Bishop M. C., Coulston J. C. Roman Military Equipment from the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome. London, 1993.
- Connolly P. Greece and Rome at War. London, 1981.
- Curle J. A Roman Frontier Post and its People: The Fort at Newstead. Glasgow, 1911.
- Hofmann A. Römische Militärgrabsteine der Donauländer. Vienna, 1905.
- Jahn O. Die Lauersforter Phalerae. Bonn, 1860.
- Lehner H. Die Einzelfunde von Novaesium. Bonner Jahrbücher, 111–112, 1904, pp. 243–418.
- Maxfield V. A. The Military Decorations of the Roman Army. London, 1981.
- Robinson H. R. The Armour of Imperial Rome. London, 1975.
- Polybius. Histories, VI.24: selection of centurions.
- Tacitus. Annals, I.23: Lucilius and the mutiny of 14 CE.
- British Museum. Legion: Life in the Roman Army: monuments of Facilis and Caelius.
Detail of the tombstone of Lucius Mummius, soldier of the Seventh Legion from Tilurium, Dalmatia, first half of the first century CE, before 42. Phalerae do not prove centurion rank.
Colour reconstruction of the tombstone of Marcus Caelius, centurion of the Eighteenth Legion. The original dates to the early first century CE, LVR-LandesMuseum, Bonn; the displayed colouring is a modern interpretation.
Colour reconstruction of the Colchester tombstone of Marcus Favonius Facilis. The original dates to the mid-first century CE; the displayed colouring is a modern interpretation.
Roman portrait relief with military decorations. Archaeological collection at Schloss Eggenberg; precise rank and date require a catalogue reference.
Roman funerary relief of a soldier with a cloak and vine rod. Previously labelled a centurion conducting a rite; the action is not established by the image alone.
Stele of Marcus Cocceius Superianus, centurion of X Gemina, third century CE.
Relief presented as Aurelius Mucianus, centurion of II Parthica, third century CE. Javelins and a small shield do not by themselves prove command of a separate skirmisher unit.
Roman relief showing military decorations and equipment. Without an inscription, their depiction does not by itself prove the owner’s centurion rank.
Funerary relief from Danielsberg / Reißeck, Carinthia, inv. 3632; Roman period. Precise rank and date require the inscription and a catalogue reference.
Relief showing Roman military decorations and equipment. Museo Nacional de Arte Romano, Mérida. The owner’s rank should not be established solely from the objects shown.Interested in Ancient Rome beyond reading? Join Legio X Fretensis or explore our reenactment directions.
