Headwear
In the ancient world headwear was made mainly from felted wool, cloth, straw, plaited fibre and leather. It was worn by men and women among many peoples of the Mediterranean and neighbouring regions: Greeks, Romans, Celts, Dacians, Parthians and others. Its practical purpose was straightforward: to protect the head from sun, cold, dust and rain, to hold the hair, or to serve as soft padding under a helmet.
Headwear was not only a practical object. A cap, hat, hood, wreath or diadem could mark occupation, age, gender, religious role, civic status or local tradition. Ancient headwear is therefore better understood as a set of seasonal, occupational and status solutions rather than as a single universal type of dress.
Mosaic from the House of Orpheus. Pafos,Archaeological Park. 2-3 century AD
Image from an Etruscan burial urn. 2nd century BC
Ancient Greek wearing a headdress. Found in Apulia. Kept in the Louvre Museum,France. 4th century BCEveryday forms
The simplest forms were soft caps made of felt or cloth. Latin pilleus and Greek pilos could mean a cap or felt hat; in Roman culture the pileus also became a symbol of freedom and the freed slave. In practical dress it was useful as a work cap and as soft padding under a helmet or hood.
Brimmed hats protected the face and neck from the sun. In the Greco-Roman world the petasos and kausia are well known: they belong to travelling, pastoral and military contexts, but broad-brimmed or flat hats also appear in everyday provincial settings. They could be made of felt, straw, plaited fibre or leather; the exact material cannot always be determined from an image.
Hoods formed a separate group. The cucullus, or hood attached to a cloak, covered the head and shoulders and was practical for travel, outdoor labour and cold weather. In Roman dress it belongs with cloaks such as the paenula, not only with independent caps.
Archaeological finds
Relatively few archaeological examples survive because cloth, wool, leather and plant fibre usually decay. Such objects are best known from dry regions, especially Egypt. Finds include wool caps, segmental head coverings, plaited objects and pieces that may have served as warm caps or helmet liners.
Finds from the eastern deserts of Egypt, including Mons Claudianus and Didymoi, are especially important. They provide rare information about cut: separate segments, fitting around the head, cheek pieces and additional flaps. These objects help explain why the same item could be domestic, travelling and military in function.
Liner. Mons Claudianus. 100-120 AD
Segmental headdress from Mons Claudianus. 100-120 AD
Hat made of Didymoi with cheek pads. Egypt. 1st century ADVisual evidence
Mosaics, reliefs and wall painting show headwear in use: on fishermen, shepherds, travellers, craftsmen, soldiers outside battle or ritual figures. Form and colour matter, but context is just as important. A working or travelling figure is more likely to wear practical sun protection, while priestly bands, wreaths and diadems belong to status and ceremony.
One useful example for the Roman provincial world is the 3rd-century mosaic fisherman from Dougga. The image shows a small head covering with a raised top and edge, protecting the head while working near water. The source is valuable because it depicts not parade costume, but an everyday labour setting in Roman North Africa.
Fisherman. Dougga, 3rd century AD. Fragment of the Nile Landscape mosaic, Bardo Museum.Military and travel context
In the army, headwear must be separated from metal protective equipment. On the march or in camp a soldier could wear a soft cap, hood or band, but in battle the main protection remained the galea. A soft liner could be used under the helmet to reduce pressure from the metal and improve the fit. In cold weather head protection was supplemented by the focale, cloak and hood.
Travellers, drovers, peasants and fishermen needed headwear no less than soldiers. In hot provinces the practical value of a brimmed hat was obvious, while in northern areas wool caps and hoods mattered more.
Women's and status headwear
Women's headwear was often connected with hairstyle, veil and band. Everyday and festive dress could include ribbons, veils, head coverings, hair nets and decorative pieces. They could cover the hair according to norms of modesty, hold an elaborate hairstyle or emphasize family and public status.
Headwear can also include wreaths, diadems and ritual bands. They were not always hats in a narrow sense, but they performed the same visual function: they marked a person out from those around them. For priests, victors, emperors and elite women, such an object became a sign of role, power or sacred action.
Related topics
- Helmet Liner
- Clothing in Ancient Rome
- Roman Army helmets
- Celtic headwear
- Kausia
- Coronae
- Diadem
- Men in Ancient Greece
- Men in Ancient Rome
- Women in Ancient Greece
- Women in Ancient Rome
Sources and Literature
- Fisherman. Dougga, 3rd century AD. Fragment of the Nile Landscape mosaic, Bardo Museum. Published in: "Mosaics of North Africa", Iskusstvo magazine, no. 5 (529), 2003.
- Croom A. T. Roman Clothing and Fashion.
- Sebesta J. L., Bonfante L. The World of Roman Costume.
- Goldman B. Roman Footwear, Clothing and Headgear.
- Sumner G. Roman Military Clothing.
Fragment of a Greek painting of dishes with a woman in a headdress. 6th-5th century BC
Hermes wearing a petasos and carrying a caduceus on an Attic vase from the Louvre, G 264, around 480-470 BC.
Coin with Demetrius II Seleucid in Kausia. 2nd century BC
Agios Athanasios (a village 20 km west of Thessaloniki). Late 4th century BC
Agios Athanasios (a village 20 km west of Thessaloniki). Late 4th century BC
Terracotta figurine of a peasant with a hat. Louvre Museum,France. 1st century BCInterested in Ancient Rome beyond reading? Join Legio X Fretensis or explore our reenactment directions.
